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| A Hand Book of Socio, Economic and Cultural Issues ISBN: 978-93-93166-67-8 For verification of this chapter, please visit on http://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/books.php#8 |
WASH and School Education |
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Dr. Rinku Verma
Founding Director
Read Foundation
Jaipur Rajasthan, India
Dr. Ratna Verma
Associate Professor
IIHMR University
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
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DOI:10.5281/zenodo.14989939 Chapter ID: 19782 |
| This is an open-access book section/chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. |
BackgroundPoor drinking and sanitation is a cross-cutting issue that affects the human population from rural to urban, gender, health, livelihood, education, and general wellbeing. India launched its first sanitation program in 1985, and the government continually supported the Swachh Bharat Mission. However, the program shifted from supply-driven to demand-driven and focused on behaviour change communication for sustainable outcomes. Poor Sanitation and drinking water are the biggest challenges of Indian. This issue is a concern of every citizen, which affects India's large population. A total of 39.8% of the Indian population defecate in the open. Sometimes, open defecation is also a reason for rape and sexual harassment of women when they have to go out in the dark hours. In terms of basic drinking water, the coverage is 80.2 percent of India's population.[1] The poor sanitation issue is more concerned with school education. Only 72.6 per cent of the school has basic sanitation services, and 6 per cent have basic drinking water facilities.[2] The school sanitation issue is more crucial for providing a clean and hygiene environment, which positively affects students' learning[ibid]. Poor WinS in schools and lack of puberty and menstrual hygiene education cause girls to experience menstruation social stigma, with few places to turn for help; all this results in girls' absenteeism and low enrolment during menstruation days. The Government of India’s major flagship programs, i.e., National Health Mission (NHM) and Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission called SBM), aim to address menstrual hygiene in the schools (WinS). The data shows that around 114 million girls of adolescent age are vulnerable at the inception of menarche. Adolescent age is a crucial period of their life to learn and grow in a safe environment and provides protection and guidance to girls to ensure their health, wellbeing, and other educational and development opportunity.[3] The 2015 report ‘Spot On!’ presented by NGO DASRA tells the worrying picture of menstrual hygiene for school going adolescent girls. It tells that 23 million girls drop out of school annually due to a lack of adequate menstrual hygiene management facilities, which also count the lack of logical awareness of menstruation and availability of sanitary napkins.[4] According to the Indian census, the literacy rate is 66.1% and the sex ratio of 928. Rajasthan has 33 districts, and Jaipur is the capital of Rajasthan, also the largest district as per area and population. Jaipur is the tenth most populated district of India. Jaipur has 13 blocks (Sub Division), and Bassi and Jamwaramghar are two blocks (Division).[5] Figure 1. Rajasthan Map in India
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/sAgCTVcEszjgWJWU8
Figure 1.2 Map of Jaipur District 
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/xjmKyRZ1V6sSSccb6 Check figure 10.5 Bassi is 30 KM far from Jaipur. Bassi has 44 Gram Panchayat. Bassi has a 68.01% Literacy rate. The geographical area of Bassi is 630 Sq. Km., located 1 km south of the National Highway (NH-11), leading towards Agra. Bassi has connectivity by railways and roads to the state's main cities. Bassi is 30 KM far from Jaipur. It also has well road connectivity from Jaipur. Bassi has 44 Gram Panchayat. Bassi has a 68.01% Literacy rate. The primary source of livelihood of the block is an agriculture-based livelihood. Jamwaramgarh is a block of the Jaipur district situated on State Highway - 55 and 28 km away from Jaipur district. Jamwaramghar has 49 Gram panchayats. The total geographical area is 1,022 Sq. Km. The literacy rate of blocks is 64.49%. The primary source of income of people is agriculture, industry, and tourism. [ibid,9] Education Department –
Government of Rajasthan The Rajasthan state government has a special focus on education. In order to bring quality in education, separate directorates of Elementary Education and Secondary Education were set up in 1997, which are presently functioning as separate departments. After that, the office was divided into several sections to conduct the Department of Secondary Education's work to function, and the individual functions of each section were laid down.[6] The school education system follows the Samgra Shiksha program of the Govt of India. It is a comprehensive program implemented through the Rajasthan School Education Council (RCScE), which lays out the broad goals of providing easy access to schools and better learning outcomes and improvement of school education. The pre-primary to Class XII level has been taken up as a whole. The general education consolidates three schemes of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the National Secondary Education Campaign (RMSA), and the Teacher Education (TE). [ibid] As per the Sub-Group of Chief Ministers' recommendations in October 2015 on rationalization of centrally-promoted schemes, the fund sharing pattern for the scheme between the Centre and Rajasthan is currently in the ratio of 60:40. [ibid]
Table 1.1 School Education in Rajasthan
Source- www.rajshaladarpan.nic.in; Govt of Rajasthan. India The scheme
envisages 'school as continuity' from pre-primary, upper primary, secondary to
upper secondary level, and improves the transfer rate at different classroom
levels of school education and ensures that children complete school education,
which helps to promote universal access. As per the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) of education, the following task need to integrate into the scheme
by ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education from pre-primary to
higher secondary level [ibid]
In Rajasthan, the government school
outreach is intensive. At every village level, one primary school and at every gram
panchayat, at least one senior secondary school has developed. Water and sanitation are basic needs of the community. WASH is a cross-cutting issue; many stakeholders, policies, programs, including political willingness and financial implication, are essential to understand. India is a welfare state, and the government is bound to provide equal opportunity for all people without any discrimination based on caste, colour, and sex.
Figure 2. 1 Mark Moor’s Strategic Tringle for Public Value
Source; Author The government agencies are responsible for proper WASH and particular for Mensuration Hygiene Management (MHM) in schools. The adolescent girls and their family members are clients. A safe, clean, and friendly environment for adolescent girls are essential for the best learning outcome; however, the government spends enormous human, financial, and technical resources to achieve sustainable development goals. Guided by the Indian constitution, the Indian government is committed to providing education. In the new Samgra Shiksha Abhiyan program, the vision and mission of the Government of India is; “By 2030, ensure that all boys and girls complete free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes. Eliminate gender disparities in education equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous people, and children in vulnerable.”[7] The key deliverable in relation to Menstrual Hygiene Management in Schools; · Creating a safe and enabling environment for adolescent girls in school · Availability and access to standard menstrual hygiene services for safe MHM practice · Developing collaboration with the local community for promoting equal opportunity for the girl students · Providing life skills education and counselling to girl students The policy and program which has an essential role in Menstrual Hygiene Management for Adolescent girls in India are;
Smagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) & Right to free and compulsory education (RTE) ActThe Union budget, 2018-19, has conceptualized the ‘holistic education’ and proposed no segmentation from pre-nursery to class12. The new program ‘Samagra Shikha’ has focused on equal opportunity to access the school and equitable learning outcomes. Both are essential factors of school effectiveness. The programs incorporate three existing programs, namely Sarv Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[ix] (RAMSA), and Teacher Education (TE). The constitution of India’s eighty-sixth amendment under article 21-A in 2002 provided free and compulsory schooling for all children (age 6-14 years) as fundamental rights. The right to education act (RTE) was enacted in 2009 and reinforced that every child has a right to acquire elementary education free and of equitable and satisfactory quality in formal schools.[8] The right to education (RTE) made it a duty of states to ensure free and compulsory education for all the children, which means that no child of the age group 6-14 years (other than those whom their parents have admitted in schools not supported by the appropriate government), shall be accountable to pay any fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him/her from pursuing or completing elementary school education in India.[ibid] ‘Compulsory’ denotes an obligation on the appropriate government to provide admission to the children and ensure their retention until they complete elementary education. The act was a statutory step to strengthen and support a child's right to education. The government must provide a safe and enabling environment for children’s education as a fundamental right. [ibid]
Figure 2. 2 Education & Empowerment Index and per child expenditure in selected state of India
Source: Centre for Budget and Policy Studies. India The right to education is a fundamental right in India and recognized by the government because of the Right to Education Act (2009). Quality education needs political will and investment. The relationship is evident in the education and empowerment index (E&E index)[x]. The E&E is higher in Himachal Pradesh and Kerla; these states spent maximum education (per child expenditure).[9]
Figure 2. 3 Spending on Education since 2014
Source: Centre for Budget and Policy Studies India The central budget allocation for education is also felling. In 2014-15 the allocation was 4.14%, which dipped to 3.4% in 2019-20. Similarly, the total education budget of GDP percentage is also decreasing, as shown in the figure. [ibid] The implementation framework of Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) explicitly describes sanitation and hygiene, menstrual hygiene management and equality in education as vital points mentioned in the SSA guideline[10]. 1.3.2(III), Access to education means beyond the physical outreach of the school in the community. Access means understanding the educational needs of marginalized communities, e.g., SC, ST, handicapped, and girls in general, and providing the enabling environment. [ibid] 1.3.2(IV) Gender concern, to put efforts to enable the girls to compete with boys in education, and to define education in the perspective of National policy on Education 1986 & 1992 that is a decisive intervention in education which may bring change in women status. [ibid] 2.2.3 Ensure availability of the adequate infrastructure – Schools shall have all the provisions to attract and retain students in schools till their completion of education. The provision includes adequate teachers and classrooms, gender-based adequate and function toilets, drinking water, and other infrastructure. [ibid] 2.17.1& 2.17.1.2
Composite School grants – An annual recurring school composite grant of Rs.
25,000 to 100,000 depends on enrollment numbers to all government schools to
replace non-functional school equipment and incurring other recurring costs
such as consumables for play materials, sports equipment, laboratories,
electricity charges, internet, water, and teaching aids. The grants also cater
to the annual maintenance and repair of existing school buildings, toilets, and
other facilities to upkeep the infrastructure in good condition. The grant can
also cover promoting the Swachh Bharat Campaign. Each school must spend at
least 10% of the composite school grant on activities related to the Swachhta
Action Plan. [ibid] Swachh Bharat Mission – SBM (Clean India Mission) Swachh Bharat Mission is an ambitious national flagship program launched in 2014. Achieving universal sanitation overage is the primary objective of the program. The program aims to improve cleanliness by solid-liquid waste management and open defecation free community. The Ministry Jalshakti (earlier known as a ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation-MDWS) is responsible for implementing the program under two sub-components, e.g., Swachh Bharat Mission- (Rural) and Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban.
Figure 2. 4 Swachh Bharat Mission (G) budget allocation
Source: India Expenditure Budget, Vol-2; Ministry of Drinking water & Sanitation, Govt. of India
Menstrual hygiene management is a vital part of the National Flagship program of the Government of India – “Swachh Bharat Mission.” The Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) Framework (2015) highlights essential elements such as access to hygiene infrastructure, knowledge, awareness, and supportive policies to ensure girls stay in schools during menstruation. School heads/teachers and staff have an essential role in sensitizing boys and girls in the schools and ensuring they have access to necessary hygiene facilities.[11] The Swachh Bharat Mission Guideline provides the direction for Menstrual Hygiene Management. Para 6.9.2 discusses the issue of safe Menstrual Hygiene Management. Community mobilization and information are necessary actions to achieve MHM objectives. The CSO and SHG can play a vital role in developing community-based manufacturing & supply models to meet the demand for sanitary napkins. [ibid] The guideline para no. 6.9.3 direct that the IEC component of SBM-G may utilize to raise awareness about Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM), especially in adolescent girls in schools. In addition, funds under Solid Liquid Waste Management (SLWM) may utilize to install incinerators in schools for safe menstrual waste disposal. [ibid] Since 1985 with the first sanitation program, the Central Sanitation program (CSP) had launched, the sanitation programs having various names of a scheme like Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) and Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC). The last sanitation program launched in 2014 with Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM). Open defecation and toilet construction always remained a central focus of water and sanitation programs. In 2014, every third person who defecates in the open was Indian. According to the Ministry of Water and Sanitation, SBM has achieved the open defecation free (ODF) status with 99.25 per cent toilet coverage. Now, SBM has shifted
from ODF to ODF+ approaches. The ODF Plus program has four components:
biodegradable waste management, plastic waste management, greywater management,
and faecal sludge management. Swachh Bharat-Swachh Vidhalya scheme -SBSV Every school in India has functional WASH facilities, ensuring that it is the program's aim. The WASH has two-component, the Technical component includes drinking water, handwashing, toilets, and soap facilities, and the Human development component to develop the conditions within schools and practice for students to prevent WASH-related disease. The technical and Human development component develops a healthy school environment to inculcate students' health and hygiene behaviour.
Figure 2. 5 Government schools with sperate girl’s toilet
in India (from 2012-13 to 2016-17) 
Source – U-DISE Secondary Education Department, Ministry of Human Development, Govt. of India
Girls are reluctant to continue their education
and become vulnerable to dropping out because of the unavailability of private
and safe toilets. The program focuses on providing the appropriate WASH facilities to
manage the biological needs (mensuration). Adequate and safe facilities allow
the girls to stay in school and complete education. As shown in figure-2.5, from 2012-13 to 2016-17, there is an upward trend of girls' toilets in primary, upper primary, and higher secondary schools.[12] Under the Swachh Bharat-Swachh Vidhalya scheme, 41776 toilets were constructed in 261400 schools, including the 190887 girls' toilets up to 15 Aug. 2015. The achievement results from the collaboration between state and UT’s governments and Corporate and PSUs. Swachh Vidhyala Puraskar (Clean School Award) The government of India
launched the award in 2016-17 to honour the government school that has done
exemplary work in WASH. From 2017-18, the private schools were included in the
award. The school rating criteria include the water, toilets, handwashing with
soap, operations, and maintenance and behaviour change communication. In
2017-18, a total of 52 schools got awarded with a certificate and INR 50,000/-.
Menstrual hygiene scheme (2011) For the adolescent girl's age group of 10-19 years, the Ministry of Health and Family welfare (MoHF) started a program in 2011 to promote menstrual hygiene, the use of high-quality napkins in rural areas, and safe disposal of sanitary napkins in an environmentally friendly manner. In the program, a pack of six sanitary napkins “freeways” were distributed to a rural adolescent at the rate of Rs. 6 by ASHA on the door to door basis or using the platform of the school and Anganwari. The scheme is benefitting the poor adolescent girls in rural India. ASHA keep Rs. 1 out of each pack of “freeways” sold as an incentive. ASHA also convene a meeting of adolescent girls to discuss menstrual hygiene management.[13] Since 2014 procurement of sanitary napkins has been decentralized, and the state is responsible for procuring napkins from local manufacturers. The preference will be given to the Self Help Group (SHGs) for supplying the napkins. In FY 2018-19, INR 425.4 Million have been allocated through NHM to 15 States/UTs for decentralized procurement of sanitary napkins through competitive bidding. [ibdi] National Menstrual Hygiene Management (NMHM) Guideline 2015 Menstruation is a natural biological process experienced by all adolescent girls and women, and in India is a social taboo and not discussed openly, causing unnecessary embarrassment and shame. India’s 114 million adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable at the onset of menarche. At this time, adolescent girls need a safe and secure environment that provides protection and guidance to ensure their basic health, well-being, and educational opportunity. The detail of the MHM guideline has been discussed in the chapter- 4 under operation capabilities.
Figure 2. 6 Menstrual Hygiene Management Framework
Source: NMHM Guideline, MDWS. Govt of India Guideline for Gender issue in Sanitation program (2017) In 2017, the gender
issue in sanitation guidelines was issued by order no. SBM/S-11018/2/2017 for
addressing the vulnerability of women in WASH. Women are one of the most
vulnerable groups by inadequate WASH facilities. The guideline provides the
scope of the safe and friendly environment for toilets in Swachh Barat
Mission- Rural by participatory planning while designing the toilets. The
guideline also emphasizes the National Menstrual Hygiene Management framework
2015.[14] National Rural Livelihood Mission
In 2010-11, the Government of India restructured the SGSY program, and National Rural Livelihood Mission emerged. The mission of NRLM is "To reduce poverty by enabling the poor households to access gainful self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities, resulting in an appreciable improvement in their livelihoods on a sustainable basis, through building strong grassroots institutions of the poor."[15]
Figure 2. 7 NRLM Framework
Source: NRLM Guidelines The NRLM main components are institution buildings (SHGs, and livelihood organization for poor), financial inclusion (capitalizing the institutes of poor, access to credit, livelihood promotion (farm and non-farm-based livelihood), social inclusion and development of the marginalized and vulnerable community, and convergence of various livelihood enhancement schemes. [ibid] The total budget for NRLM is INR 57.50 Billion in 2018-19. Since its inception, the mission outreached in 5,123 blocks spread across 612 districts of 29 States and 5 Union Territories (UTs). More than 56.3 million women have been mobilized into more than 4.97 Million Self Heal Group (SHGs) in institutional building. Further, the SHGs have been federated into more than 273,000 village-level federations and about 25,093 cluster level federations. Also, these community institutions have been provided more than INR 59.1971 Billion as capitalization support.[16] The government of India is implementing two programs for adolescent girls for healthy and overall development. The first program is the Rashtirya Kishor Swasth Karyakarm (RKSK), launched in 2014 by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (MoFW). The program focuses on sexual and reproductive health, nutrition, injuries and violence, non-communicable disease, mental health, and substance abuse. The program approach is promotion and preventive. RKSK has four interventions: Adolescent Friendly Health Clinic (AFHCs), Weekly Iron Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) Program, Menstrual Hygiene Scheme, and Peer Education Program. The second program was SABLA, launched by the Ministry of Women & Child Development (WCD) in 2010. The target group of the scheme is the girl's age group of 11-18 years and out of school and in-school adolescents. The adolescent girls receive life skills education, nutrition and health education, awareness about socio‐legal issues. Also, the Indian Government rolled
out its new tax system in 2017 by introducing Goods and Services Tax (GST). As
far as women's needs are concerned, GST exempts products like bindi, kajal, and
sindoor, which symbolize the marital status of women but continues to pose a hefty
tax on products like sanitary napkins. However, after strong opposition, the
government also included the sanitary napkin in GST exempted basket. The campaign ‘Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao’ (Save Daughter-Teach Daughter) The government of India launched Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) programs in 2015. The program is in campaign mode and addresses the declining Child sex ratio (CSR) and related issues of women empowerment. The program involves the three ministries' efforts Human Resource Development (HRD), Women and Child Development (WCD) and Health, and Family Welfare (MoFW). The key component of the scheme includes enforcement of the PC & PNDT Act[17], nationwide awareness and advocacy campaign, and multi-sectoral action with an emphasis on mindset change through training, sensitization, awareness-raising, and community mobilization. The schemes/programs mentioned (from 2.2.1 to 2.2.9) are the interventions of the central government of India. The Rajasthan state government also takes a girl's education as a priority. It implements the programs to create an enabling environment for girls’ education and gender equality in the school’s education. Some of the essential schemes described in table 2.1 Girls Education – Economic perspective India is the second-largest populated country and ranks 120 among 131 countries in female labour force participation rates, and rates of gender-based violence remain unacceptably high. India’s economy is the fifth-largest economy due to its vast market and workforce. However, it is a severe lag regarding gender equality in terms of income and wages. India is among the nastiest countries for women’s labour force participation. The Oxfam study shows that 82 % of the men and 92% of the women earn less than 10,000/- a month. In 2018, India had 30.8% female labour force participation, which is much less than male labour force participation, 79.7%. The gender gap is significant between urban and rural populations. About 54.9 per cent of the rural males, 18.2 per cent of the rural females, 57 per cent of the urban males, and 15.9 per cent of the urban females were in the labour force.[18] Women's participation has a decisive role in India's economy. The report suggests the 10 percent increase of female labor force participation could result in a 700 billion USD growth of India's GDP by 2025 (1.4% increase).[19] It is hard to develop an inclusive and sustainable way when half of the population is not fully participating in the economy.[ibid] Interestingly, there is a strong relationship between country economic growth, health, and well-being of the population and school education. According to a study of 23 OECD countries, simple measures of foundational skills such as numeracy and reading proficiency by schooling significantly affect hourly earnings.[20] The impact of education is comparatively substantial in terms of girls' school. Each additional year of female primary teaching is associated with roughly six fewer deaths per 1,000 live births. However, the effect is about two-thirds larger in the countries where schooling delivers the most learning. The return is higher in low and middle-income countries, especially for women.[21] The human capital index is a new development economics concept which translates the importance of education and health in national development. Human capital is defined as ‘Human capital consists of the knowledge, skills, and health that people accumulate throughout their lives, enabling them to realize their potential as productive members of society.’[22] Health has pronounced in well-being, and education is essential for a satisfying and rewarding life. Both education and health expand human capabilities. According to the world bank’s world development report, 2019- The changing nature of work education emphasises the importance of education in developing socio-behavioural and cognitive skills such as teamwork, empathy, conflict resolution, perseverance, and relationship management. Globalization and technology emphasise these skills, which shows human capabilities and are essential to achieving development. The health capital index shows that a child born today can expect to attain by her 18th birthday, given the risk of poor health and poor education in the country where she lives. The score ranges from zero to one. The index measures the productivity of a future worker child's productivity relative to the benchmark of good health and complete education. As a report from the world bank, India ranks 115 out of 157 countries with a score of 0.44 in the index. The score is below the average of South Asia. The score interpretation is that a child born today will be only 44% as productive when she grows up as she could be if she enjoyed complete education and total health.[23] Health is another essential component of human capital, and people remain productive when healthy. The two components of human capital complement each other. The evidence shows that investment in education, especially for girls, has substantial returns, and human capital promotes social capital. Human capital and Menstrual hygiene are inextricably related. Lack of awareness, limited access to menstrual services, and poor WASH infrastructure significantly affect the MHM in school. The poor MHM causes the girls to drop out, absenteeism, and lack concentration in study. The impact comes out in poor education and learning outcomes. Girl education also affects human capital in the long term. There is a linear inverse relationship between maternal education and child mortality. The risk of child mortality, under-5 years, decreases by 2-5% for every additional year of mother’s schooling.[24] Girls Education – Human Development Perspective According to Human Development Report 2018, with a score of 0.64, India ranks 130 out of 189 countries in the human development index. The report is based on information and statics till 2017. The human development index consists of three components long and healthy life, access to knowledge, and a decent lifestyle. All three components intermingled with each other. The average number of years of education received by a population of 25 years of age or older is described as the mean years of education and access to learning and knowledge by expected years of schooling for children of school-entry age, which is the total number of years of schooling a child of school-entry age can expect to receive if prevailing patterns of age-specific enrolment rates stay the same throughout the child's life.[25] One of the significant reasons for slow progress in HDI is social and economic inequality prevailing in India. Inequality hinders human development interventions. The inequality-adjusted HDI tell about the inequality in all HDI dimensions. The Inequality-HDI (IHDI) is fundamentally the HDI discounted for inequalities. One can find the loss in Human development by the difference between the HDI and IHDI. There is an inverse proportional relationship between inequality and human development loss. Since 2010, India’s IHDI has remained in a range of 0.408(2010)- 0.468(2017). The interpretation as that the HDI falls to 0.468, the inequality in the distribution of HDI dimension incidence causes the loss of 26.8 per cent of HDI (human inequality co-efficient%). The other dimension of gender inequality is also a big challenge in human development.[26] The gender development index (GDI) measures the gender-based inequality in achievement in three dimensions of human development. The measurement includes health (female-male life expectancy at birth), education (female-male expected a year of schooling and means years for adult 25 years or older age), and control over the economic resource (female-male estimated GNI per capita) Reference
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