Abstract

The research piece tried to articulate the socio-economic impact of Covid pandemic on slum settlers in India. An attempt is also made to examine the slum development strategies of India. The research paper is theoretical and explanatory in nature. Research papers are collected from Open Athens, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. Search terms like “Covid Pandemic”, “Socio-economic Impact”, “Slum Regeneration Strategies” etc. are used assembling literatures. It is found that the pandemic has destroyed the social prevalence and economic endurance of the informal settlers. Loss of employment, the burden of health expenditure, unhygienic living conditions, overcrowded tenements, etc. ruined the economic backbone of these inhabitants. It is worth mentioning that these prolonged and lingering ailments create stress and anxiety which leads to many socio-psychological issues. In the second part of the research work, different government programs in India are also examined.

Keywords: Socio-economic, Pandemic, Slum dwellers, Regeneration strategy,

Introduction

Many nations are currently dealing with the significant issue of growing slums due to rapid migration from rural to urban in search of employment. As such, the growth of slums poses a major sanitation challenge (Isunju et al., 2011) and such an increase in slum households is pertinent in future as well (Mahabir et al., 2016). The growth of such slum population is linear with the size of the city (Sahasranaman & Bettencourt, 2021). It can be inferred that the rise of the urban slum with the increase in the size of the city. A slum is a densely populated neighborhood with a collection of badly maintained, typically temporary tenements that are packed close together. In addition, there were physical risks, and psychological distress with higher socio-economic costs (Issa, 2021). Also, the use of pit latrines, open drains, overcrowding, etc. creates many contagious diseases in the informal settlements ((Isunju et al., 2011).

In India, there are approximately 65,494,604 people living in slums. They are not only common in metropolitan cities but are also spreading to other Indian cities and towns. They are known by various names including Bustees in Kolkata, Jhuggi-Jhopdi in Delhi, Chawls in Mumbai, Cheris in Chennai, Keris in Banglore, and Ahata in Kanpur, all of which have similar meaning such as dilapidated and infirm housing structures, acute overcrowding, faulty alignment streets, poor ventilation, paucity of drinking water, lack of access to bathroom facilities, flooding during the rainy season and non-availability of basic physical and social services.

The growth of slums has more negative and less positive impacts in socio-economic contexts. It can affect the country’s image at international level (Gambo, et al., 2012). Ambiguous property and tenancy rights can negatively affect the efficacy of municipality (Marx et al., 2013). The slum dwellers work as daily laborers, housemaids, and municipality workers. They help the economy by providing a cheap source of labour (Malecki & Ewers, 2007). Their contribution to cleaning of cities, collecting residuals, etc. are indispensable. However, they are deprived on a large scale to get adequate housing and essential services (Killemsetty, et al.,2021). However, they became more susceptible during the covid pandemic. Though the vicious virus has no discrimination in spreading its tantrums, marginalized people, laborers, and informal settlers have suffered a lot. In this context, the paper primarily focuses the socio-economic impact of Covid pandemic on slum settlers in India.

The entire research work has been apportioned into three segments. The introductory part induces the topic and its relevance in the ensuing situation, The core part discusses the socio-economic impact of the pandemic which is the focal point of the study. The concluding part compiles the implication and conclusion.

Objectives of the Study

The paper tries to explore the impact of the Covid pandemic on socio-economic endurance of slum dwellers by assembling literatures of different forms. The study also compiles several slum development programs in India. An effort is made to accumulate the slum regeneration strategies of different nations.

Methodology

The paper is theoretical and explanatory in nature. Further, it is based on the review of several literatures. Research papers are collected from Open Athens, Scopus and Google Scholar databases. Search terms like “Covid Pandemic”, “Socio-economic Impact”, “Slum Regeneration Strategies” etc. are used assembling literatures. A selection and rejection criteria were also set for it. A process of identifying the concept, organizing, screening, selection, analysis, and interpretation is vividly followed for the study purpose.

Discussion

The segment analyses socio-economic impact of covid pandemic on slum dwellers and the regeneration strategies primarily in the Indian context. However, some popular slum settlement strategies of several nations are also discussed. 

Socio-economic Impact of Covid Pandemic

Wirastri et al., (2023) found that there is numerous health, social and economic effects associated with the global spread of Covid-19 for those belonging to vulnerable communities, such as those who reside in slums, these pose a daunting obstacle. Maung et al., (2023) opined that the livelihoods of informal settlers were severely disrupted by the closure of factories, closure of construction sites, and social distancing measures during the Covid-19 pandemic.  In addition, Singh (2014) analysed that the socio-economic condition of the slum dwellers generally remains poor due to a lack of fundamental social amenities including functional skills, a decent education, a source of income, and resources for sanitation and health. Similarly, Patel, (2020) suggested that in order to stop the Covid-19 disease from spreading, people must abide by social distancing rules in public places and everywhere they interact with other people. But there are various difficulties with using social distance in slums because of the particular living circumstances there. Golechha, (2020) found that slums and informal settlements have become major Covid-19 transmission areas. Due to inadequate or non-existent access to proper water, toilets, sewers, drainage, waste management systems, housing, and other fundamental necessities, urban slums are particularly vulnerable to Covid-19 infection.

Vulnerable populations suffered a lot due to their poor socioeconomic and health repercussions as a result of covid-19 and the government’s mitigation efforts. While the government’s Covid-19 mitigation packages should focus on vulnerable populations, a particular focus should be placed on young people, married persons, and low-income workers (Aberese-Ako et al., 2022) Ghosh et al., (2020) analyzed the physical, social, and economic elements that increase slum inhabitant’s exposure to Covid-19 and it conducts a critical evaluation of the state’s initiatives to help slum inhabitants prevent In Covid-19. Similarly, Palwe & Bajaj (2019) identified that due to the vast population and predominance in a developing nation like India, combating this highly contagious disease is even more challenging. Challenge owing to rural residents, a dense population, a population with lower socio-economic and educational levels, etc. Choudhari, (2020) replicated that high levels of anxiety during India’s lockdown period led to socially irresponsible behavior and panic attacks among internal migrant workers, as well as sudden national travel bans, lack of work that left people without the money to cover daily food expenses and quarantine rules.

Verhagen & Ryan, (2008)  studied that Covid-19 have a disproportionately negative impact on the poor, and these implications go beyond the health effects of living in a filthy environment on a daily basis. Many of the poor, especially women and girls are compelled to spend time and effort for a secluded spot to discharge themselves. These sites are frequently only accessible before dawn or after dusk, which increases the danger of sexual assault.  Nuwematsiko et al., (2022) found that social distancing, a key preventive strategy in the fight against Covid-19, is challenging to adopt as a result of the overcrowding and cramped living conditions of residents in slums. Slums are made even more susceptible by the absence of basic necessities including food, water, sanitary facilities and medical attention. Bhide, (2021) analysed that, the Covid-19 pandemic and the associated containment measures led to the breakdown of “usual” ways of living and working in the Indian city and released an atmosphere of loss, starvation, and dread in particular informal settlements.

Slum Regeneration Schemes of India and Abroad

 i.    Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

The Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) and integrated Housing and Slum Development Programmes (IHSDP), are being carried out under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) which was launched on 3^rd December 2005 and focuses on basic services to the urban poor and integrated development of slums.  Under BSUP, 65 selected cities around the country are covered and the remaining cities are covered under the IHSDP. 527 projects have been approved under the BSUP program, with a total project cost of Rs. 30188.69 crores for the building of 1017252 Dwelling Units (DUs). 1084 projects in 928 cities have been approved under the IHSDP plan, with a total project cost of Rs. 12048.50 crores for the building of 570951 Dwelling Units.

ii.    Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP)

Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) is a Sub Mission of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Urban Mission (JNNURM). In order to offer utilities to the urban poor, the Sub-Mission of Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) will focus primarily on integrated slum development through programmes for providing shelter, basic services, and other civic amenities. Thiruvananthapuram and Kochi corporations in Kerala were chosen to implement BSUP. Rs 250 crores are the total funds allotted to the state under BSUP. For Thiruvananthapuram, the central and state government split funds in the ratio of 80:20. Both the central and state governments share equally in Kochi Corporation. After subtracting the beneficiary share, the remaining 50% of the state contribution will be paid for by the respective Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), with 30% going to the state government.

 iii.    Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP)

The integrated development of slums in urban areas is the goal of the centrally sponsored Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP). The plan was created by the central government by combining two erstwhile schemes i.e., National Slum Development Program (NSDP) and the Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojana (VAMBAY). The project helped the state’s urban areas by giving slum residents shelter and essential amenities. In 45 urban local bodies, IHSDP is being used. With Kudumbashree serving as the State Level Nodal Agency, the projects are being carried out in the state.

The central and state governments finance projects in the ratio of 80:20. There is a beneficiary share requirement for projects involving single-family dwellings (12% for general and 10% for SC/ST). After deducting the beneficiary share from the 20% state contribution, the remaining funds will be split equally between the Urban Local Bodies and the state (the Maximum state participation is 10% of the total project cost).

 iv.    Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)

The Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana encourages the establishment of self-employment ventures by urban people living below the poverty line, providing skills training, and also offers wage employment by utilising their labour for the construction of socially and economically beneficial public assets. This programme aims to provide gainful employment to the urban unemployed and underemployed poor. This scheme is available to all cities and towns around the country. 353,803 beneficiaries were served by SJSRY’s skills training programme in 2011-12, while 79,804 beneficiaries were served under the self-employment programme.

v.    Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY)

The Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) programme was introduced on 2^nd June 2021 and it is intended to further substantiate the government’s goal of eliminating slums from India. According to the scheme, states that agree to grant slum residents property rights are given financial support in exchange for providing them with a suitable place to live, essential public services, and the opportunity to build a supply of inexpensive housing. By the end of the 12^th plan (2017), the programme anticipated to encompass more than 250 cities throughout the nation. The state would be required to include all of the JNNURM’s mission cities, preferably those with a population of more than 3 lakhs, as well as other smaller cities, taking into account factors such as the rate of urban growth, the presence of slums, the predominance of minorities, and areas where property rights are assigned. In accordance with the Rajiv Awas Yojana’s Slum Free City Planning Scheme, funds have been made available to 34 states and UTs. According to Annexure-I, there are 185 cities where preparation is being made. In addition, eight pilot projects for the construction of 8400 housing units totalling Rs. 446.22 crores with Rs. 197.09 crores in Central Assistance have been approved under Rajiv Awas Yojana. 

 vi.    Affordable Housing in Partnership Scheme

Rajiv Awas Yojana has been integrated with the Affordable Housing Scheme which aims to promote public-private partnerships for the construction of affordable housing stock. In accordance with this programme, central assistance will be given at a rate of Rs 50,000 per rental or affordable housing unit or 25% of the cost of internal and external municipal infrastructure, whichever is less. Under this scheme, 8 projects have been approved with a central aid of Rs 7.2 crore to all cities which are covered by Rajiv Awas Yojana for the construction of 5776 Affordable dwelling units.

vii.  Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP)

The Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP), which offers 5% interest subsidy on loans up to Rs 1 lakh, is being implemented to make it possible for the urban poor to acquire credit for housing loans at reasonable rates. Rajiv Awas Yojana has been integrated into this plan.

viii.  National Slum Development Programme (NSDP)

The National Slum Development Programme was initiated in 1996 as a special central assistance scheme for slum improvement, the NSDP has been giving state governments’ extra central support to help them in providing water supply and sanitation, among other utilities to the slums. In partnership with state governments, which will set up the implementation machinery, secure the necessary land, and handle the credit component for housing, this programme was introduced in 2001-02 with the goal of providing housing or upgrading the existing housing for those living below the poverty line in urban slums. According to their slum population, the state funds under the plan will be proportionate.

ix.  Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yojana (VAMBAY)

The Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yojana has been introduced in 2001-02 to provide a shelter or upgrading the existing shelter to the below- poverty line people in urban slums. The scheme’s main goals are to make it easier for slum inhabitants to build and upgrade their homes and to create a safe and hospitable urban environment through the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan, a component of the scheme. 20% of the total collection under VAMBAY is provided for sanitation and community toilets to be built for the urban poor and slum dwellers.

x. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana

The “Housing for All (Urban)” Mission is implemented in urban areas from 2015 to 2022 and it provides central aid to implementing agencies through States and UTs to build homes for all eligible families and beneficiaries by 2022. A beneficiary family will consist of a husband, wife and any unmarried daughters or sons. To qualify for central aid under the mission, the beneficiary family cannot own a pucca house in any area of India, either in its own name or in the name of any family member.

States and UTs have the ability to set a deadline by which recipients must dwell in the urban area in order to be eligible for the programme’s benefits. All statutory towns as of the 2011 census as well as any towns later notified would be covered by the mission. State and UTs will have the option to include the planning area that is announced in relation to the statutory town and that encircles the relevant municipal area in the Mission.

xi. Slum Generation Programmes at Global Level

Muchadenyika (2015) concerned that the informal settlers in Zimbabwean cities and Harare were suffered a lot by a repetitive evacuation process. They are displaced due to the hosting of the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in 1991 and exiled to the outskirt of the town because of the appearance of the Queen of England, and other Heads of States. The process of outstation continues as the authority failed to form a sustainable urban planning and resettlement of such inhabitants. However, operation Garikai, launched by Government of Zimbabwe made a modest contribution to the evolving issue of shortage of houses in the country (Chatiza & Mlalazi, 2009). Surprisingly, the operation was called a chaotic programme when it was handed over to the urban councils (Muchadenyika, 2015). Later, slum upgrading programme in Harare was led by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation's Global Programme for Inclusive Municipal Governance which was also implemented in African cities like Cairo, Lilongwe, Luanda and Monrovia.

However, in Morocco, after the successful implementation of the program “Villes Sans Bidonvilles” (VSB) or “Cities without Slums,”, 58 of 85 cities of the country are declared as slum free. Atia (2019) argued that such slum dwellers responded to VSB spontaneously and forced the policy makers to modify the regeneration approach. The BSB program aimed to render permanent homes to the 2,00,000 and more informal city settlers.  But the inhabitants had to make a security deposit of 200,000 MAD (approximately $21,000) before moving to the newly built five storied apartments. The dwellers denied such financial burden which ultimately led to the failure of the program and just a 10% success of the VSB programme was counted. However, VSB initiatives were well appreciated by the international institutions like UN Habitant and World Bank.

Implications

Pandemic impact was numerous. The intrinsic characteristics of slums made it more vulnerable. Further, sudden halt of income worsened the situation. The troubles are multiplied by financial and social exclusion. The low-income groups usually never prepare for an unprecedented situation. Thus, a sustainable strategy to defend these circumstances should designed and drawn. A permanent solution is the regeneration of the informal settlements. Providing land license, permanent houses, availing if income opportunity, etc. can neutralize the issues. It is worth mentioning that only physical infrastructure cannot solve the problem. It is also found that the dwellers have given their new houses as rent and continue to live in the same slum or reside in a different slum. In Mumbai, the vertical towers only facilitated infrastructure issues but failed miserably to retain the dwellers in it. Thus, providing of only houses without occupation cannot solve the issue rather intense more slums. It was witnessed that social disruption and displacement was caused in Jakarta, Indonesia in terms of loss of employment, food insecurity, increased cost of electricity, etc. (Sholihah & Shaojun, 2018) as the resettlement strategy focused socio-economic parameters only. Similar occurrences were confronted in Lagos state, Nigeria (Ilesanm, 2012), Chennai, India (Nagarajan, 2017), Seoul, Korea (Dennis, 1990), Zimbabwean cities Muchadenyika (2015).

Sarkar & Bardhan (2020) traced ‘socio-spatiality’ aspects to improve the displaced and Amnesty International (2009) traced that non-considering economic benefits in the new resettlements can create dissatisfaction among the households. Yeboah et al. (2021) added that slum regeneration strategy should not only focus physical attributes rather emphasise socio-economic components.

Slum resettlements strategies will be successful only if the relocation site will be nearer to their current residing area (Killemsetty, et al.,2021) as they do not want to lose their present occupations and employments which may be permanent or temporary.

Slums in Tamesna, Morocco, many households refused the resettlement process and rejected the process of matching slum units for allotting new apartments to the habitants (Keep et al., 2021).  In implicating the Kenya Slum Upgrading Project (KENSUP), a loss of income source and increased transportation cost are the major economic hurdles (Fernandez & Calas, 2012) and the rent of the house was very high and not affordable by the households.

Nations with no loss of time should participate in “Target 7D of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (UN MDG)” (United Nations, 2015a) and “Goal 1 of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals” (United Nations, 2015b) to resettle slum habitants.

Participation of beneficiary is pivotal in slum development programs as witnessed in Moroccan slum dwellers movement program (Atia, 2019).

Conclusion

Keep et al., 2021) suggested that social inclusion, consultation, participation, and engagement of dwellers can materialise the resettlement process in an ideal way. It will build a trust among the habitants which can lead to cooperation and support in the later stage. The policy makers should keep their promises and make an ex-ante and post-ante monitoring (Yeboah et al., 2021) of the evacuation and rehabilitation strategy by proliferating and expediating the whole course. Similarly, in the VSB program of Morocco, the apartments for the dwellers were built without considering about schools, parking, hospitals, etc. resulting the protest of people who had already moved to it (Atia, 2019). From the large number of literatures, it can be entangled   that slum dwellers made several complaints about the size, location, higher electricity cost, selection criteria, etc. of the new houses which are provided to them. Even after getting new houses with all desired facilities, slum dwellers refused to move as their family members, friends and neighbours were denied and declared as ineligible to get the new houses. Despite the vulnerability in slums, dwellers rejected different schemes and continued to stay in the slums. Thus, an integrated slum revival strategy embedded with physical attribute, economic factors and socio-psychological components is the need of the hour.

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