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The study examines successful case studies and best practices, drawing valuable lessons that can guide future policy and planning efforts.

India's water landscape is characterized by a complex interplay of geographical, climatic, and anthropogenic factors. The distribution of water resources is uneven, with certain regions facing scarcity and others grappling with contamination issues (Tzanakakis et al., 2020). Additionally, the impact of climate change further exacerbates the challenges by altering precipitation patterns, affecting water availability and quality(World Bank., 2022). Against this backdrop, the introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted issues surrounding water safety planning in India.

The first aspect needs to be addressed is the significance of water safety planning for public health. Access to clean and safe water is a fundamental right(Wahi, 2022), and its absence can lead to a myriad of health issues, including waterborne diseases(WHO, Drinking Water, 2023). Understanding the direct correlation between water safety and public health lays the foundation for recognizing the urgency of developing and implementing robust water safety plans.
Furthermore, there is further requirement to highlight the broader implications of inadequate water safety planning on societal well-being and economic development(Grafton et al., 2014). Water scarcity and contamination can disrupt agricultural activities, industrial processes, and overall economic productivity(Rathor et al., 2024). This underscores the need for a holistic approach to water safety that considers environmental sustainability, social equity, and economic viability.

The paper thus briefly outlines the overall structure, which delve into the current challenges faced by water safety planners in India, explores recent developments and initiatives aimed at addressing these challenges, and projects the future scope of water safety planning in the country. By presenting a comprehensive overview, the paper aims to contribute to the discourse on water management, policy formulation, and public health in the Indian context.

Table 1. Basic Components of a Water Safety Plan (WSP)

Source: (WHO, 2023)

Current Challenges:

Water safety planning in India faces a myriad of challenges, reflecting the complex interplay of demographic, environmental, and infrastructural factors(Ramsey et al., 2017). Understanding these challenges is crucial for developing effective strategies to ensure access to clean and safe water for all. This section identifies and discusses the current challenges associated with water safety planning in India. Key challenges include contamination of water sources, inadequate infrastructure, uneven distribution of water resources, and the impact of climate change on water availability and quality and so on(Narsimhan et el., 2023). An in-depth examination of these challenges provides a foundation for understanding the complexity of water safety issues in the country.

1.Contamination of Water Sources:

One of the primary challenges in India's water safety landscape is the contamination of water sources. Surface water bodies, such as rivers and lakes, often bear the brunt of industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and untreated domestic sewage(Bartram, 2005). Contaminants such as heavy metals, pathogens, and chemical pollutants compromise the quality of water, posing significant health risks to the population. Groundwater, a major source of drinking water, is also susceptible to contamination from agricultural chemicals and improper disposal of industrial waste(Chin, 2013).

Table 2. Presence of water quality contamination hotspots across country as reported by States/ UTs (Ministry of Jal Shakti, 2021)

Water Quality Contaminants	Arsenic	Fluoride	Salinity	Iron	Nitrate	Heavy Metals
No. of State	10	20	17	28	17	3

2.Inadequate Infrastructure:

The inadequacy of water supply and sanitation infrastructure is a pervasive challenge in both rural and urban areas of India. Many regions face issues of insufficient access to piped water supply and sanitation facilities(Bhattacharya et al., 2021). Aging infrastructure, leakages, and inefficient distribution systems contribute to water losses and hinder the delivery of safe water to communities(Bello et al., 2019). In rural areas, the lack of proper sanitation facilities exacerbates waterborne diseases, emphasizing the need for holistic infrastructure development.

Table 3. Sewage generation and treatment capacity in Metropolitan Cities of India

Total Sewage generation (MLD)	Total Sewage treatment capacity (MLD)	Percent of treatment capacity
15644	8040	51

Abbreviation: MLD- Megalitres per Day; Source (CPCB, 2013)

 

Figure. 1 Sewage generation and treatment capacity in Metropolitan Cities of India

3.Uneven Distribution of Water Resources:

India's water resources are unevenly distributed across regions, leading to disparities in water availability. Some areas experience water scarcity due to erratic rainfall, over-extraction of groundwater, and insufficient storage capacity, while others contend with annual flooding(Raju, 2018). This imbalance not only affects the availability of water for various uses but also exacerbates competition and conflicts over water resources, both within and between states.

4.Impact of Climate Change:

The impact of climate change on water availability and quality is a growing concern in India. Changes in precipitation patterns, increasing temperatures, and extreme weather events can disrupt the hydrological cycle, affecting water sources and exacerbating water stress(Cappelli, 2017). Rising sea levels also pose a threat to coastal freshwater sources. Adapting water management strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change is essential for ensuring long-term water security.(pande et al., 2023)

5.Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance:

Monitoring and surveillance of water quality present a significant challenge, especially in remote and underserved areas. Inadequate testing facilities, a shortage of trained personnel, and limited access to real-time data hinder the timely detection of waterborne contaminants(El-Shafeiy et al., 2023). Improved water quality monitoring systems, including the deployment of advanced sensor technologies, are essential for proactive management and response to potential water safety threats(Sapkal et al., 2019).

Figure 2. Taxanomy diagram of Water Quality Monitoring System (Lakshmikantha et. al, 2021)

6.Urbanization and Industrialization:

Rapid urbanization and industrialization contribute to increased water demand and pollution. Unplanned urban growth leads to the encroachment of water bodies and the discharge of untreated industrial effluents into water sources(Ahmed et al., 2020). Balancing the need for economic development with sustainable water management practices is a complex challenge that requires integrated planning and regulatory measures.

Table 4. Urbanization and industrialization introduce point and non-point chemical sources into surface and groundwater systems

Point Source	Non-Point Source
Wastewater effluent (municipal and industrial)	Urban runoff from agricultural areas
Runoff and leachate from waste disposal sites	Activities on land that generate contaminants, such as logging, wetland conversion
Runoff from mines, oil fields, industrial sites	construction, and development of land or waterways
Overflows of combined storm and sanitary sewers	Atmospheric deposition over a water surface
Runoff from construction sites	Septic tank leachate and runoff from failed septic systems
Runoff and infiltration from animal feedlots	Runoff from pasture and range

Source: (Carpenter, et al., 1998)

7.Population Growth and Demographic Pressures:

India's burgeoning population adds further strain to water resources and infrastructure. The increasing demand for water for agriculture, industry, and domestic use places immense pressure on existing systems(Sharad, 2011). Addressing the water needs of a growing population requires not only efficient resource allocation but also sustainable practices to ensure long-term water availability(Santos et al., 2023).

Table 5. Projected Total Population 2011-2036: India

S.No.	Year	Persons
1	2011	121,08,55,000
2	2016	129,10,74,000
3	2021	136,30,06,000
4	2026	142,59,08,000
5	2031	147,87,75,000
6	2036	152,22,88,000

Source: (Population Projection Report, 2020)

Table 6. Projected Water Demand in India (By different use) (Projected by Standing Sub-Committee of Ministry of Water Resources)

Sector	Water Demand in BCM (Billion Cubic Metre)
	2010	2025	2050
Irrigation	688	910	1072
Drinking Water	56	73	102
Industry	12	23	63
Energy	5	15	130
Others	52	72	80
Total	813	1093	1447

Source: (Singh & Kaur, 2019)

In conclusion, the current challenges facing water safety planning in India are multifaceted, encompassing issues of contamination, inadequate infrastructure, uneven distribution of resources, climate change impacts, monitoring deficiencies, urbanization, and demographic pressures. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic and collaborative approach involving government bodies, communities, and stakeholders to implement effective and sustainable water management solutions.

Recent Developments in Water Safety Planning in India:

Water safety planning in India has witnessed significant developments in recent years, driven by a growing recognition of the need for sustainable water management practices. These developments span policy interventions, technological innovations, and community-driven initiatives, reflecting a multifaceted approach to addressing the challenges associated with water safety(Bhallamudi & Philip, 2023). Recent developments in water safety planning, including policy interventions, technological innovations, and community-based initiatives, are explored and examinedtaking variousformslike the implementation of the Jal Jeevan Mission, advancements in water quality monitoring, and the role of smart technologies in improving water safety and others. Understanding these developments is crucial for assessing the current state of water safety infrastructure in India.

1. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM):

One of the most significant recent developments is the implementation of the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM). Launched in 2019, JJM aims to provide tap water connections to all rural households by 2024. The mission focuses on decentralized, demand-driven, and community-managed water supply systems. It emphasizes the integration of local communities in planning, implementation, and management, thereby fostering a sense of ownership and ensuring the sustainability of water supply infrastructure(Jal Jeevan Mission, 2022).

Figure 3: Jal Jeevan MissionVision- Aligned with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Source: (PIB, 2022)

2.Technological Innovations in Water Quality Monitoring:

Advances in technology have played a crucial role in enhancing water quality monitoring. Remote sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping, and sensor-based monitoring systems have been deployed to assess water quality in real-time. (Oksen, 2020). These technologies enable authorities to detect contamination events promptly, improving response times and overall water safety.

3.Smart Technologies for Water Management:

The integration of smart technologies, such as Internet of Things (IoT) devices and data analytics, has become increasingly prevalent in water management(Okoli & Kabaso, 2024). Smart meters and sensors help monitor water consumption, detect leaks, and optimize distribution networks(Zapata-Sierra et al., 2024). The data generated by these technologies contribute to efficient resource utilization and aid in identifying potential hazards to water safety.

Figure 4. Evolution of the worldwide scientific production in smart water meters (Zapata-Sierra et al., 2024)

4.Community-Based Initiatives:

Recognizing the importance of community involvement, various grassroots initiatives have emerged to address water safety issues. Community-led water quality monitoring, participatory water management, and awareness campaigns have been instrumental in empowering local communities to take an active role in safeguarding their water sources(Alazaiza et al., 2022). These initiatives contribute to building resilience and promoting sustainable water use practices.

5.Innovations in Water Treatment:

Research and development in water treatment technologies have led to innovations in purification methods. Advanced treatment processes, such as membrane filtration, UV disinfection(Soleimanpour et al., 2022), and nanotechnology-based solutions(Gehrke et el., 2015), offer efficient means of removing contaminants from water. These technologies are critical for enhancing the quality of drinking water and mitigating health risks.

Figure 5. Advance water treatment process Source: (Soleimanpour et al., 2022)

6.Policy Frameworks for Water Safety:

The government has introduced and revised policies to address water safety comprehensively. This includes guidelines for water quality standards, pollution control, and sustainable water resource management. Regular updates to these policies reflect a commitment to adapt to emerging challenges and align with international best practices(Narasimhan & Gaur, 2010).

Table 7. India's Water Policies: A Chronological Overview with Key Features

S.No.	Policy/Programme	Implementing Authority	Launch Year	Key Features
1.	Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)	Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India	1972	Help state governments provide safe drinking water to rural areas.
2.	National Water Policy	National Water Resources Council, Ministry of Water Resource, Government of India	1987	Use all water resources efficiently, prepare for droughts and floods, Protect nature and the environment.
3.	National Water Policy	Ministry of Water Resource, Government of India	2002	Support local water-saving efforts, ensure fair water distribution, Involve communities and private sectors.
4.	National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)	Ministry of Water Resource, Government of India	2008	Reduce water wastage, involve stakeholders actively in water projects, study how climate change affects water resources, identify drought-prone areas, identify flood-prone areas, focus on coastal regions, address areas with low rainfall, manage overused groundwater areas, improve water quality in affected regions, monitor snow-fed river basins.
5.	National Water Policy	Ministry of Water Resource, Government of India	2012	Adapt to climate change, improve water availability, build better water management skills, apply charges for water use, protect rivers and water structures, manage floods and droughts, handle cross-border river agreements, focus on research and training, Implement the National Water Policy.
6.	Jal Jeevan Mission	Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India	2019	Aimed at providing safe and adequate tap water to every rural household.
7.	Atal Bhujal Yojana	Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India	2019	Focused on community-driven groundwater management in water-stressed areas.
8.	Draft National Water Policy	Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India	2020	Proposed a holistic approach to water management, river rejuvenation, and climate adaptation.

7.Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs):

Collaborations between the public and private sectors have gained traction in implementing water safety measures. Public-Private Partnerships bring together the efficiency of private enterprises and the oversight of government agencies, creating a conducive environment for sustainable water infrastructure development and management.(Ministry of Jal Shakti, 2021)

In conclusion, recent developments in water safety planning in India reflect a dynamic and adaptive approach to addressing the complex challenges associated with water management. The combination of policy initiatives, technological innovations, and community-driven efforts holds promise for achieving sustainable and equitable access to clean and safe water across the country. Continued collaboration between government, research institutions, and local communities will be crucial for further advancements in water safety planning.

Figure 6. Public- Private Partnerships (PPPs) projects in India, 1990–2023

Source:https://ppi.worldbank.org/en/snapshots/country/india

Initiatives and Best Practices in Water Safety Planning in India:

This section highlights successful water safety initiatives and best practices implemented at the national, state, and local levels. Case studies and success stories showcase effective strategies for ensuring water safety, including community engagement, water treatment innovations, and sustainable water management practices(Niti Aayog, 2023). Drawing lessons from these initiatives can inform future policy and planning.

1.Community-Based Initiatives:

Community participation is a cornerstone of successful water safety planning. Various initiatives across India have demonstrated the positive impact of involving local communities in the management and protection of water resources(Kumar & Saizen, 2023). Community-driven programs focus on raising awareness about water safety, promoting responsible water use, and fostering a sense of ownership among residents(Mishra et el., 2021).

Example: The "Tarun Jal Sankalp" initiative in the state of Rajasthan is a community-led effort to conserve water through rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge. By involving youth and community leaders, the initiative has successfully increased water availability and improved water quality in several villages.

Example: The Jal Jeevan Mission's success in states like Gujarat and Telangana highlights the effectiveness of community involvement. These states have implemented innovative approaches, such as the use of technology for real-time monitoring and community-led water quality testing, contributing to the mission's overall success.

2.Technological Innovations:

Incorporating advanced technologies in water safety planning enhances monitoring, treatment, and management processes(Kydyrbekova et el., 2022). Innovative solutions play a crucial role in addressing contamination issues and ensuring the delivery of safe water to communities.

Example: Mobile-based applications for water quality monitoring have been adopted in states like Kerala. These apps enable citizens to report water quality issues, empowering them to actively participate in identifying and addressing potential hazards. Real-time data collected through these applications also assists authorities in prompt decision-making.

3.Sustainable Water Management Practices:

Implementing sustainable water management practices is essential for long-term water safety. Initiatives promoting water conservation, rainwater harvesting, and efficient irrigation techniques contribute to the preservation of water resources and reduce the overall demand on existing water supplies.(Kaposztasova et al., 2023)

Example: The "Sujalam Suphalam Water Conservation Campaign" in the state of Maharashtra focuses on watershed management and rainwater harvesting. By creating check dams, contour trenches, and promoting afforestation, the campaign has led to increased groundwater levels, improved soil moisture, and enhanced agricultural productivity.

Table 8. District wise Summary of Sujalam Suphalam Project (1-Aug-19 to 31-Jul-20)

S.No.	District Name	Project Name	No of Completed Structures	Excavation in Lakh (Cu. M)	Water Storage Capacity Increased (Crore Litre)
1.	Buldhana	Sujalam Suphalam	8	55,937	6
2.	Akola	Sujalam Suphalam	8	2,24,642	22
3.	Washim	Sujalam Suphalam	4	20,655	2
4.	Osmanabad	Sujalam Suphalam	15	49,603	5

Source(Sanghatana, 2019-2020)

4.Corporate and NGO Partnerships:

Collaborations between corporate entities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government agencies have proven effective in addressing water safety challenges(kumar et al., 2024). These partnerships often involve corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives that fund water infrastructure projects, research, and community engagement programs(Silva, 2024).

Example: The partnership between the Hindustan Unilever Foundation and the Government of Maharashtra for the "Jal Dhan" program is a successful collaboration. This initiative focuses on watershed development, sustainable agriculture, and community engagement, leading to improved water availability and quality in targeted regions.

5.Capacity Building and Training Programs:

Ensuring the competence of stakeholders involved in water safety planning is crucial. Capacity building and training programs provide essential skills and knowledge to communities, water utility staff, and local authorities, enabling them to effectively manage and maintain water supply systems.(World Bank, 2022)

Example: The "Swachh Bharat Mission-Gramin" includes capacity building components that focus on training local communities in proper sanitation and hygiene practices.(Ministry of Jal Shakti., 2020) This holistic approach contributes not only to improved water quality but also to overall public health.

In conclusion, the success of water safety planning in India depends on a combination of community engagement, technological innovations, sustainable practices, strategic partnerships, and effective capacity building. By learning from these initiatives and best practices, stakeholders can contribute to the development of a robust and resilient water safety framework for the nation.

Future Scope:

The future scope of water safety planning in India is discussed in this section, considering the evolving socio-economic and environmental landscape. Anticipated challenges, potential technological advancements, and policy recommendations are presented to guide the formulation of a robust and adaptive water safety framework. The role of research and innovation in addressing future water safety challenges is also emphasized.

As we look towards the future, the field of water safety planning in India presents a dynamic landscape with emerging challenges and opportunities. Addressing the future scope involves understanding potential issues, envisioning innovative solutions, and charting a path towards sustainable water management. The following areas outline the future scope of water safety planning in India:

1.Climate Change Resilience:

Challenge:Climate change poses a significant threat to water resources, leading to altered precipitation patterns, increased temperatures, and extreme weather events.(Reddy, 2023)

Opportunity: Future water safety planning must integrate climate-resilient strategies, including the development of adaptive infrastructure, efficient water storage, and sustainable water usage practices.

2.Technological Innovations:

Challenge: Rapid technological advancements are essential to improve water quality monitoring, early detection of contaminants, and efficient water treatment processes.

Opportunity: Embracing smart technologies, such as IoT-enabled sensors, artificial intelligence, and data analytics, can revolutionize water safety planning(Kumar et al., 2024). Automated monitoring systems, real-time data analysis, and predictive modelling can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of water management(Jayaraman et el., 2024).

3.Integrated Water Resource Management:

Challenge:The fragmented approach to water resource management often leads to inefficiencies and inequitable distribution.

Opportunity: Implementing integrated water resource management, combining surface water and groundwater management, can optimize water use(Biswas, 2008). This holistic approach ensures sustainability, reduces water wastage, and addresses the interdependence of different water sources.

Figure 7. Holistic view of water resources management (Kumar et al, 2020)

4.Community Engagement and Education:

Challenge:Limited awareness among communities about the importance of water safety and sustainable water practices.

Opportunity: Future water safety planning should prioritize community engagement and education programs. Empowering communities with knowledge about water conservation, sanitation, and pollution control can foster a sense of ownership and responsibility(WHO, 2012).

5.Policy Frameworks and Governance:

Challenge:Inadequate enforcement of water safety regulations and the need for updated policies to address emerging challenges.

Opportunity:Strengthening regulatory frameworks, ensuring transparent governance, and aligning policies with evolving needs are crucial. Collaboration between government bodies, NGOs, and local communities is essential for effective policy implementation(Tavares & Roegar, 2018).

 

Figure 8. Basic Principles of water policies in India (Rathee & Mishra, 2021)

6.Research and Development:

Challenge:The need for continuous research to stay ahead of emerging contaminants, treatment technologies, and evolving water quality standards.

Opportunity:Investing in research and development can drive innovation in water safety planning. This includes developing cost-effective treatment methods, exploring alternative water sources, and understanding the long-term impacts of emerging contaminants.(Gleick, 2000)

7.Public-Private Partnerships:

Challenge:Limited resources and funding for water safety infrastructure projects.

Opportunity:Encouraging public-private partnerships can mobilize resources and expertise for large-scale water safety initiatives(Perrott & Stiggers, 2013). This collaborative approach can accelerate the implementation of innovative technologies and infrastructure projects.

In conclusion, the future scope of water safety planning in India demands a multi-dimensional approach that addresses both existing challenges and those on the horizon. By embracing technological innovations, fostering community participation, enhancing governance frameworks, and investing in research, India can pave the way for a sustainable and resilient water future. The key lies in proactive planning, adaptability, and a commitment to safeguarding this vital resource for future generations.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the paper, emphasizing the importance of addressing water safety challenges in India. It underscores the need for collaborative efforts between government bodies, research institutions, and communities to ensure sustainable water management practices and safeguard public health.

In conclusion, this research underscores the imperative of addressing water safety challenges in India through a multifaceted approach. The identified challenges, including water source contamination, inadequate infrastructure, and the impacts of climate change, necessitate immediate and sustained attention. The findings suggest that the current initiatives, such as the Jal Jeevan Mission and technological innovations, represent positive steps toward improving water safety infrastructure.

The success stories and best practices highlighted in the paper emphasize the importance of community engagement, innovative water treatment methods, and sustainable management practices. These examples serve as valuable lessons for shaping future policies and interventions. Recognizing that water safety is intricately linked to public health, the paper advocates for a holistic and collaborative approach involving government bodies, research institutions, and local communities.

Looking ahead, the future scope of water safety planning in India requires an anticipatory and adaptive framework. Considering the dynamic socio-economic and environmental landscape, the paper suggests that future initiatives should incorporate emerging technologies, prioritize research and innovation, and integrate community-driven solutions. By fostering synergy between various stakeholders and leveraging evolving technologies, India can strive towards a resilient and sustainable water safety framework.

In essence, this research serves as a roadmap for policymakers, water management authorities, and researchers to navigate the complexities of water safety planning in India, ultimately contributing to the overarching goal of ensuring access to clean and safe water for all citizens.

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