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The predominantly mountainous region comprising the present- day Himachal Pradesh is inhabited by very interesting people with tremendous religious history, mythology, folklore, legends and tradition. Himachal Pradesh is situated in the lap of Western Himalayas, and is specifically known as ‘Dev Bhoomi’ meaning the ‘Land of Gods’. The splendid scenic beauty and its cheerful peace-loving people have contributed a lot to make the hill life full of charms, fascination and enjoyment. Himachal Pradesh is amazingly blessed with astounding beauty of nature, tranquility, lush green surroundings, and magnificent landscapes.In the north western part of the Himalayas lies the district of Shimla which is surrounded by Mandi and Kullu in the north, Uttrakhand in the south-east, Solan and Sirmaur to the south-west and Kinnaur in the east. Shimla district in Himachal Pradesh has several deities. The elevation of this district ranges from 987meters to 4500meters. It comprises of Tehsil Shimla, Rampur, Kumarsain, Seoni, Theog, Chaupal, Jubbal, Kothkhai, Rohru, Chirgaon, Dodra-Kawar, Nerwa, Kupvi and Nankhari.Tehsil Kotkhai in Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh state is known for its largest production of apples. This Tehsil derived its name from Hindi and Urdu language where the word “Kot” means kings palace and “Khai” means depth, therefore meaning “Kings Palace situated in depth”. Kotkhai is located at 31.12 degree North 75.53 degree east. It has an average elevation of 1881 meters (6171 feet). As per census 2011, there is 1 town and 250 villages within Kotkhai tehsil.The popular religion of this tehsil is animism and deity worshipping. Here people are very devotional towards their local clan deities. This tehsil has a considerable number of shrines and temples.

Gerald D. Berreman in his work, Brahmins and Shamans in Pahari Religion (1964), presents a contrast between the religious roles of Brahmin priests in Brahmanical or Sanakritic ritual, on the one hand, and of Shamans, an important category of non-Brahmanical, non- sanakritic practitioner, on the other, with special reference to their roles in religious change i.e. as religious innovators and policy makers. Berreman carried out a field research during 1957-1958 in Sirkanda, a Garhwali village in Dehra Dun district on the western border of Tehri Garhwal. In this paper, Berreman explains how pahari Hinduism deviates from Hinduism in the plains, and by plains standard it is unorthodox and degraded, the high caste Khasiya paharis tends to exhibit religious and social behavior which on the plains is associated primarily with the low-caste group. Berreman states that all the priests in pahari religion are Brahmins but only few Brahmins are priests, only one or two members in a Brahmin family performs priestly functions while the rest are involved in agriculture. These pahari Brahmins, even when they participate in non-great traditional ceremonies, their function is to inject an element of the great tradition into the performance. They provide a sanskritic air to the worship of non-sanskritic local gods. Further Berreman describes a non-Brahmanical religious practitioner in the pahari religion known as baki (shaman). These shamans are non- Brahmanical practitioners and are not within the great tradition of Hinduism, they are part of the pan-Indian Hindu vernacular or little tradition; they play a crucial role in the pahari religious tradition, as a result of their pronouncement, particular deities appear, gain prominence, lose prominence and disappear in the village pantheon. They function as a decision maker in pahari religion and also as a cultural policy maker who influences the lives of the people in important ways. Berreamn argues that the Brahmin purohits are discouraged from innovating in the traditional religious context; they have to memorize great amounts of material which they are supposed to reproduce without deviation from the original, Shamans, on the other hand are encouraged to innovate, and within prescribed limits. The shamans determine which supernatural being to be worshipped, pacified appeased or which ceremony to be performed, which sacrifice will be offered, the styles of worship, correction of troubles, etc. Berreman concludes that there has been an increase in the demands for Brahmin priests more learned in plains Hinduism than most traditional priests. With increasing knowledge of the sanskritic Hinduism of the plains, some pahari Brahmins have become the advocate of religious change and hence have become innovators, while the shamans, like traditional Brahmin priests have held onto old traditions. Now the shamans joins the traditional priests as conservatives and the advocates of traditional religion, while the “new” Brahmins who advocates innovation has gained an enhanced status. The shamans, the Brahmin priests are important human figures in Berremans conversation. Berreman has done a detailed analysis of both the categories in order to understand the pahari concepts of the supernatural and the human agents associated with them. B.R. Sharma’s Gods of Himachal Pradesh (2006), explores the origin or manifestation of Gods of Himachal Pradesh and describes the traditions, myths and legends associated with them. The whole Himalayan region is full of mystic vibrations and has been myth logically painted as the land of divine spirits. This book illustrates a number of temples and shrines discussing the rituals, customs and festivals of the Himalayan deities. Among several interesting social practices prevalent in the hill society, especially in places of higher altitude, the institution of village gods are the most remarkable. In his study, Sharma emphasizes that the village gods and goddesses act like common human beings with sentiments, emotions and pride. There has been a history behind each on of them. Ruchi Ramesh in her paper, Devta Institution of Himachal Pradesh: A Sociological Study (2007), studies devta Chikhreshwar enshrined at the village Chikkar – a panchayat headquarter in the Theog development block in district Shimla. The paper discusses the origin of devta Chikhreshwar and reveals how the institution of devtas like any other institution has a specific objective to fulfill. The prime faith of the people in the area is that the village deity regulates and controls everything concerning their life including disease, production in fields, progeny of subjects, possession of wealth, advent of calamities, disasters, etc, and violation of any norms of this institution will lead people to suffer unnatural disasters and calamities. The author argues that this institution has been performing the most indispensable functions for the subjects thereby contributing to their social existence. She further describes that this deity institution possesses all the essential features of the state, i.e. sovereignty, population, territory and citizenship. Like the British constitution, the Devtas have an unwritten constitution based on traditions and conventions. The author discusses some of the key functions performed by the deity institution like governance of harmonious activities among the subjects, socialization, and distribution of natural resources like water, land and forests, deliverance of justice. Besides, they also have the latent function of helping human beings to satisfy their quest for a relationship with the spiritual and metaphysical force. The author comes to the conclusion that even today when forces of change are operating in society, there is a firm faith and adherence of the subjects to this very institution. In Temples of Himachal Pradesh: Architectural, Sculptural, Religious and Cultural Significance, Indus publishing Company (2008), Nilmani Upadhyaya, illustrates that the temples are not only the religious shrines but are also midpoint of responsive social life. Himachal Pradesh is full of temples related to Shiva and Shakti and other local deities. The people of Himachal Pradesh are very religious minded and have great faith in their gods and deities. Here every village has its own temple. These temples are center of vibrant social life consisting of peace, harmony and exalted spiritual life. This book is based on the author’s visits to various temples of Himachal Pradesh and his observations of the hill –temple and other aspects. The author has covered entire Himachal Pradesh and visited Lahul-spiti, Kinnaur, Pangi, and other places during the course of his study of different temples. His interaction with the priests and other related functionaries of the various temples provided him clear, authentic and first hand information of different characteristics of the temple. The present book aims at studying the architecture, sculptures, religious, and cultural significance of the temples of all districts of Himachal Pradesh. It provides information to the readers about different architectural styles of temples and also highlights some of the temple sculptures which are wonders of the folk art. Akshay Thakur and Nilamber Chhetri in their paper, Influence of Deity Institution and Shamanic Traditions on Social Structure of Himachal Pradesh (2009), explore the idea of how the Gods and Goddesses of the Himalayas tends to communicate with the regional populace via a devised oracle system of shamanic nature. These godly spirits posses a medium called Gur, and converses with his or her subjects to either resolve their grievances or to bestow upon them their blessings. The study aims to unravel some of the operational and functional aspects associated with the shamanic institution and also attempts to highlight some inherent structural rigidities and biases. The author argues that this belief system provides as an alternative redressal mechanism for settling all sorts of conflicts, enquiring about personal health, resolves community woes, providing decisive insights on wide ranging matters of public interest. However, it also contributes in maintaining the social rigidities and biases to a certain extent, as in most cases these village gods and goddesses limits specific social groups like women or lower – caste people from entering the deity’s premises. The study highlights the fact that even in these modern times, this belief system continues to regulate the structural, cultural, political and social edifices of the Himalayas. G.S. Bhatt’s Cult, Religion, and Society- Polygamous People of Western Himalayas (2010), is an anthropological study and a result of author’s lifelong involvement with the people and culture of Rawain-Jaunpur in Himachal Pradesh. This book started as a study on polyandry in this area but it assumed multi-dimensionality with deeper inquiry. The book beautifully highlights the life of the ordinary man of the region, as it is woven in and around their devta – the Mahasu. This work studies the religious phenomenon of the mahasu devta from a sociological perspective. The author in his work brings out the continuity and deep rootedness of Indian culture. He highlights the linkage between the local beliefs and practices with the Sanskritic traditions of the Great Indian culture. All in all, the book provides a seasonal reorientation to many methodological issues associated with sociology of religion. The work is a masterpiece in terms of methodology and theoretical perspective. Chakraverti Mahajan in his study, Sacred Complex and Development: An Ethnographic Study of a Devta Institution in Himachal Pradesh (2011), describes the organic relationship between the hill people and the local deity in a village named Chikkar in Shimla district. This paper explains the fact that the institution of the local deity and the traditional customs and practices associated with them are not simply a matter of individual faith but also most important ingredient of the secular public sphere. The article is divided into five sections. The first part is largely an account of the nature and development of the deities in Himachal Pradesh. This section explains how the local deities decides the matter of criminal civil law, settles family and other types of disputes, restores a sick person to health, and also delivers justice to the aggrieved people. Another imperative point made by the author is that the devta has his sovereign power over his subjects and has constitutional power rooted in traditions, conventions and customs. In second section, Mahajan provides a brief insight of the research settings and methodology used, third and fourth are mainly an ethnographic account of the local deity and the sacred ecology of the Chikkar village in Shimla district. In the concluding section, the author argues about the changes in the area of power relations and how the modern government and recent policy makers must take the traditional belief system and historically created community consciousness into consideration while dealing with any development programs. The paper throws light on the fact that religion is the most central aspect of life of people in the Himalayas and this way of life has evolved through complex interaction of the local inhabitants with nature in space and time. Asaf Sharabi and Hagar Shalev in their work, Charismatic Mediumship and Traditional Priesthood: Power Relations in a Religious Field (2017), describe the roles of ‘priests’ and ‘mediums’ who serve the Mahasu deity in Himachal Pradesh. In many of of the villages of Western Himalayas the two most important religious functionaries of each devta are the ‘priests’ and the ‘mediums’. Through them the community communicates and interacts with the deity. Using Weber’s classification of authority, Sharabi and Shalev argues that the priests and the mediums of the Mahasu deity are related to the two separate sources of authority: Traditional- inherited authority; and Charismatic authority. Sharabi and Shalev argue that the priest’s source of authority is traditional i.e. inherited authority, one has to be born to a family of Brahmin priests, and the mediums rely on charisma. They also differ in terms of caste. While the priests are Brahmins, almost all the mediums of the mahasu devta are Rajputs. The priests or the pujaris are responsible for the temple services including the daily ‘puja’ and other ceremonies in the village whereas the mediums or ‘mali’ serve as a vessel through which the devotee can communicate directly with the deity, thus the mediums have charisma. For Weber (1948) charisma resides in the ‘specific gift of the body and spirits, gifts that have been believed to be supernatural, not accessible to everybody’. The paper provides an explanation to how at the societal level, the medium or the mali influence important issues in the lives of the villagers, such as the offering of sacrifices and the deity’s migration pattern. Sharabi and Shalev states that since many of the mediums are rajputs and the rajputs have the vast majority of the population in the region, these mediums or malis carry more political-social clout than the village priests, as they can change the social-religious order and even sustain it. Therefore, the medium ship gives them the ability to make call on public sphere at the village level or at the area level. The malis can impose the social order or convey a new religious message. Ananya Mehta in her paper, Eco-Critical Reading of Devta Culture: Himachal Pradesh (2020), attempts to study the religious dominance that the local deities have on the pahari people. She asserts how these village gods and goddesses have overshadowed the Hindu gods and goddesses and created a culture revolving around their worship and function. Mehta argues that the concept of Earth mother or ‘dharti mata’ is prevalent in Himachal Pradesh, and for the pahari community the Earth mother or dharti mata is the one of the major source and reservoir of their life. The overall impact of these local deities has made the pahari community automatically caring towards the ecology of the hills. The study reveals how the local deities of Himachal Pradesh contributes towards the environmental growth of the hills and the role religious and folk beliefs play in keeping intact the natural wealth of the state of Himachal Pradesh.

Significance of the research paper

The religious and cultural life of the people of Kotkhai tehsil in Shimla district has been studied only in fragmented fashion. The local deities are the epicenter of the society of kotkhai. There are large numbers of studies available on the deities of Himachal Pradesh. These works are limited to only myths, legends and folktales associated with the deities and so far only few provide any information about how these deities have the ability to act and influence the local people of Shimla district. The proposed study will examine the pahari view of the deities of Kotkhai region in Shimla district, the faith of local people and the changing trends in their beliefs in recent years. The idea of appealing and talking to the deity via mediums or shamans to render judgments on interpersonal conflicts like family feuds, land disputes, or to ask for cure of a disease, or to receive blessings from the deity is very much prevalent in this Kotkhai region of Shimla district. The research aims to highlight some of the operational and functional aspects associated with this shamanic institution of deities as well as it will also focus its attention on how this institution contributes in maintaining the societal biases and rigidities to a certain extent. It will also examine the undergoing changes with regard to the beliefs and practices of Kotkhai region in contemporary times.

What is Shamanism and who are Shamans?

Shamanism is often associated with indigenous and tribal societies. It is a system of religious practices that involves the belief that shamans have the power to contact the spirit world through the altered state of consciousness, such as trance. The Shamans are believed to have the power to heal or cure the illness of people by using their natural powers rather than the medicine, and are often called as ‘spiritual healers’. It is believed that they can communicate with the spirit world; these spirits can be benevolent and malevolent spirits. The Shamans act as intermediary between the spirit world and the human world. Also known as ‘mediums’ , ‘witch doctors’ and ‘spiritual healers’, the Shamans believe in the phenomena  that our visible world is pervaded by the invisible forces or spirits which affects the life of the living.

The major functions performed by the Shamans are divination, healing, appealing to the ancestors, and officiating public religious rituals of a community. The most interesting feature of shamanism is that it spans across time and space and it deeply embedded into the culture of many different traditions. It is interesting to note that the most practices and beliefs relating to shamanism are very similar despite the distance across different cultures (Eliade, 1964). Renowned anthropologist and historian of religion, Mircea Eliade observes that that there are several common beliefs that are shared by all forms of Shamanism. These include the belief that spirits exists and they play important roles both in individual lives as well as in human society; the shamans can communicate with the spirit world in the state of trance and can treat sickness caused by the malevolent spirits. In most cultures, the shamanic practices may include rituals such as drumming, singing, dancing, or use of intoxicating substances and hallucinogens in order to reach the state of trance or religious ecstasy to communicate with spirits of the dead.

The Shamans of the Kotkhai tehsil of Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh interacts with what they believe to be the world of Gods, demons and ancestral spirits. These Shamans or mediums are popularly known as ‘Gur’, ‘Mali’ or ‘Ghanita’ in the local language of Kotkhai. These Shamans serves as a vessel through which the devotee can communicate with the clan deity or kula devta or devi.

The social and religious life of people in Kotkhai region of Shimla District is very much different from the plains. The institution of Devi- Devta is highly prevalent in this upper part of Himachal Pradesh. The centuries old peculiar institution of Deity or Devta system traces its origin back to the Rig Vedic period (1500 bc-1000bc) and is often characterized by the presence of a palanquin, commonly known as ‘ratha’ which houses the idol of the local devta or devi  who is considered as the divine manifestation of God (Thakur & Chhetri, 2019). Almost every village has a temple housing the village or clan deity locally known as devi - deovta or deo. Life without a deity is nearly impossible to a hilly person. Here people cannot envision their cultural life, emotional well being, and economic life without the benediction of their deity. For them the divinity is omnipresent, watching their every action and what passes in their mind.

The devi- devtas or deities are believed to be endowed with supernatural powers which bring about prosperity and well being when pleased and calamities or suffering when displeased. The inhabitants hold their local deities in high esteem, the prime faith of the subjects is that deity regulates and controls everything concerning their life including disease, calamities, agricultural production, possession of wealth, progeny, etc. as a result of their beliefs inhabitants would never think of setting upon any  activity without the approval of his clan or village deity be it related to constructing a house, marriage of his children or asking for any boon or seeking riddance from disease or calamity(Verma, 2008). These devi- devtas are considered as the divine rulers, the breath of the life of people, bestowing upon the people their blessings and protecting them from evil eye.

There is a generous amount of folk beliefs and legends associated with these local deities which play a very significant role in governing the behavior of the masses. The folklore associated with the local deities serves as the guardian of the traditional value system (Bhardwaj, 2015, p. 342).

 Here Folk belief constitutes the traditions, legends, myths, rituals and customs of a society which people follow out of necessity. The local deities are believed to be protective spirits, benevolent spirits, evil or malevolent spirits and ancestral spirits besides these the other brahmanical Gods and Goddesses, sages are also worshipped. The galaxy of god in the Kotkhai region of Shimla district is infinite. This galaxy of Gods and Goddesses dwells in rivers and ravines, springs and streams, in brooks and lakes, in valleys and dales, in stones and rocks, in fields and forests, in trees and plants. These gods and goddesses live everywhere and there are many shrines and places that are dedicated to them (Chauhan, 2013, p. 15). The people belonging to the Kotkhai tehsil of Shimla district are not purely Shavite or Vaishnavites. They mostly believe and worship their own Kula devtas and devis.

The temples of the Kula devi- devtas are magnificently constructed and are wonderfully large and in many cases adorned with precious ornaments. Huge amount of money are invested upon these temples; these temples have roofs in the pagoda fashion and beautiful balconies embellished with neatly carved wooden flowers, Hindu gods and goddesses, birds, animals, etc. Various rites and rituals are performed in Kotkhai tehsil with a view to achieve some goal or end. A goal can be social goal comprising fame, wealth, power, status; physical like good health, longevity and natural like rainfall, plentiful crops, etc. these goals are achieved by combination of ritual performances. The temples in Kotkhai region of Shimla district are not merely religious shrines but are also the center of responsible social life maintaining the peace, harmony and spiritual life of the inhabitants.

The Himalayan Gods and Goddesses  communicate with the regional population via a devised oracle system of shamanic nature, wherein the godly spirit possess a medium called ‘Gur’ or ‘Mali’(shaman) and then the devta or devi converses with his/her subjects to either resolve their grievances or to bestow upon them his/her blessings(Thakur & Chhetri, 2019). The idea of appealing and talking to the deity leads us to Shamanism in Kotkhai tehsil of Shimla district where people employ local mediums or shamans to consult with the deities. Shamanism in Kotkhai Tehsil is a traditional system for healing and resolving personal and community problems, in which a shaman contacts the ancestral spirits or the spirits of the deities for wisdom and advice by usually going into an altered state of consciousness.  These Shamans’s of Kotkhai tehsil possesses the ability to travel to spiritual planes in order to contact the local deities and ancestral spirits for the purpose of healing and acquiring knowledge.

In Shimla district, gur or mali is always of a masculine gender never a woman, and he does not possess any power of its own; he derives it entirely from the deity. The Gur serves as a vessel through which the devotee can communicate directly with the deity. The status of these shamans is only relevant when they are possessed. On special occasions, the Gur or mali goes into trance and it is then considered that the spirit of devta or devi has entered him. In such situation, whatever the Gur or shaman speaks is taken to be the voice of the deity concerned and at such movements, the Gur gives answers to all sorts of queries. His words are obeyed as being the prophecy or the order of the benevolent spirit, the clan deity or the village deity. It is to be noted that it is the deity himself or herself who selects its medium. The medium of the deity has to live a much disciplined life. He has to restrain from many activities.

Almost every village of Kotkhai in Shimla district has a village or clan deity. The idols of these deities or devi /devtas are up to waist and are made of eight metals or ‘ashtha –dhatu’ in definite proportion, these idols are either golden or silver or brass masks or mohras. These masks or mohras are decked in a wooden rath or palki or a palanquin.  The palanquin is usually well furnished with silken clothes, ornaments and flowers and is carried on the shoulders by the people by way of two long poles. When necessary in this position, the deity undertakes long journey over the shoulders of the worshippers. Also, these deities have their own orchestra consisting of large number of instruments of every type. There can be no function relating to the devi/devta without musical instruments (Thakur, 1997).

One significant feature of the village or the clan gods in the Kotkhai region of Shimla district is that here every deity has its own jurisdiction. The deity is considered to be the divine ruler of its territory and he /she strives for maintaining territorial and internal sovereignty. These deities are the courts, hospitals and entertainment channels for the people. Each God or Goddess watchfully safeguard the welfare of his/her subjects within their domain. These deities of Kotkhai tehsil are very much humanized. They have friends and enemies like any other human being. They eat, drink, walk, live and dance with their worshippers. In case a deity has sour relations with other deity, they then usually avoid face to face interaction with each other. The ritual procedures of the worship of these deities of Kotkhai region of Shimla district are very much different from those prevailing in the plains and other parts of the country. Animal sacrifice is a major religious rite and is performed at weddings, religious fairs and festivals, harvest time, etc. it is almost a universal religious right in the Himalayas. People offer goats, rams, and sheep after the fulfillment of their desire or wish at their deity’s temple. The flesh and meat of the sacrifice is usually consumed by the temple functionaries with major portion returned to the devotees to be likewise consumed by them and their family members and the villagers.

 The predominant belief of the people of Kotkhai tehsil revolves around the idea that their lives are controlled by the kula devta (clan deity) and the sthan devtas (village deity) along with innumerable spirits both good and bad. Most of the activities of the region are guided by this supernatural belief. The belief in charms, magic, enchantments, ghosts and evil spirits is all pervasive throughout the Shimla district. These are considered responsible for all unexpected happenings and events, as well as disasters and calamities. This belief in strange and dangerous objects and phenomenon has led the hilly population to turn towards the worship of invisible forces and deities (Chauhan, 2013). The concept of supernatural cosmic power dominates the customs of the hill folk of the Shimla district, as a result the religious rituals and cultural practices are a mixture of Hinduism and belief in supernaturalism (Bhardwaj & Sharma, 2019).

The folk beliefs and traditions of Kotkhai region of Shimla district are of extreme richness and great significance.  Beliefs are important aspect of the hill society as they regulate the day to day lives of the people. These beliefs are transmitted from one generation to the other generation and often learned in childhood. These beliefs are the essence of the lives of the locals and hence give meaning and purpose to their life. Every human being, whether a believer or a non believer hold innumerable beliefs, it is difficult for a man to survive without any of these beliefs. Modernity is fast casting its effects upon the age-old social and cultural systems of Shimla district. The present condition is that the cultural and social life of people of Kotkhai is being exploited by mechanical pursuits.  It is therefore high time that a comprehensive study of the folk beliefs and shamanistic traditions of the Kotkhai region of Shimla district is conducted well in time.

Folk Beliefs and Religious Practices: Karuna Goswamy’s Vaishnavism in Punjab Hills and Pahari Painting (1968), is a work on Viashnavism and its influence on the Pahari paintings. The author refers to the various inscriptions, paintings and sculptures to understand the faith of the people and origin of Vaishnavism and how it escalated in the hills. The author highlights the difference between the religious beliefs of plains with that of hills, as the practice of religion in hills consists of worship of numerous deities. People are more concerned about the village deity or the local gods and goddess rather than the gods of major religious system. This work not only anchors the study and spread of Vaishnavism but also specifies other popular faiths. Though this work covers Vaishnavism in detail but it also lacks the expansion of Shaktism in the popular faith.

Mian Goverdhan Singh’s, Festivals, Fairs and Customs of Himachal Pradesh (1912), provides information about the traditional societies, the social and cultural inheritance of Himachal Pradesh, its geography, the people and their customs and the literature of the pahari society. The pahadi society of Himachal Pradesh forms a vast spectrum in which innumerable religious and cultural strains have inseparably integrated together. The work focuses more on details concerning the fairs and festivals and provides brief information about other aspects. Fairs and Festivals of Himachal Pradesh like Bishu, Chaitral, Chatti festival, Dyali festival, Faguli festival, Khepa festival, Lavi fair, Manimahesh fair, Minjar fair, etc offer an untainted glimpse of the local people, their cultural heritage, and social background, their hopes and aspirations for the future. These occasions are of collective rejoicing. The author particularly talks about the tribal fairs that are there from time immemorial, and how these leave a deep impression on the community life of the people. The book is meant for the general readers who wish to enlarge their knowledge about Himachal Pradesh. This work certainly helps one to understand the different customs, rituals and rites of people of Himachal Pradesh.

M.R. Thakur’s in Myth, Rituals and Beliefs Himachal Pradesh (1997), provides information of different myths, folklores, beliefs, superstitions and traditions of the region. The work starts with the study of rituals from birth to death. The author highlights the fact that the Himalayan people hug their simplicity as much as they embrace the pinnacles of civilization. The author discusses Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism in the hills and along with the vedic sages, village gods and goddesses. The study throws light on the humanization and localization of the village gods along with the myths and legends associated with them. This work is valuable as it provides information about the region and religious practices of Himachal Pradesh.

Mahesh Sharma’s The Realm of Faith: Subversion, Appropriation and Dominance in the Western Himalayas, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla, (2001), gives an account of the popular tribal beliefs, fairs and festivals, mythologies, pilgrim centers, cults and creeds in contrast to the classical organized cults and creeds of Brahamanic Hinduism. The author provides us with the sociological cum anthropological study of the popular beliefs, rituals, and institutions of Himachal Pradesh with special focus on the districts of Chamba, Sirmaur and Kangra. The author interviews the local inhabitants, observes and participates in their rituals, records the oral traditions, inscriptions and popular literature which are very valuable to the readers. Anthropological literature written after the independence has been used as a source for the present work.

M.S Aluwalia’s Social, Cultural and Economic History of Himachal Pradesh, (2002), is a very interesting work to look into the social, cultural, and economic life of the people of Himachal Pradesh from the remote past to the present times. There is a general impression among many that before the formation of the state in the 1948, the region had no social and cultural unity. The present work clears up these misconceptions and examines from the facts of history. The work also contains some information on fairs and festivals of Himachal Pradesh. All in all it is a very informative study.

 Laxman S. Thakur’s Where Mortals and Mountain Gods Meet: Society and Culture in Himachal Pradesh (2002), this book contains a collection of twenty -four papers which were presented in a seminar on “Himachal Pradesh: A Socio-Cultural Profile”, organized by Indian Institute of Advanced Study Shimla. This book brings together the different disciplines such as art, religion, history, economics, and pure science to present a variety of approaches to the study of mountain societies. In this book, the author examines the importance of Himalayan snow for the perennial rivers, its rich and diversified plant biodiversity, forest wealth, the economy and society including the pastoralist communities, their traditions, architectural sculptures and the traditional system of knowledge. A number of scholars have contributed to this work and covers many aspects of Himachal’s past from early times to recent period.

M.R. Thakur’s another important work, Folklore of Himachal Pradesh (2006), deals with the folk ballads of mythical, historical, religious and traditional significance. The study exhibits the tales of heroism and courage, the sad plight of women who sacrificed their precious lives at the funeral pyre of their husband, known as the sathi- gathas. This book also discusses the folktales of ghosts, devils and demons, of birds and animals, of fate and adversities, of kinship and friendship and other social bonds. The author also discusses the folk proverbs of social and historical importance as well as position of women in the hill society. It also contains the brief history of the folk theatre, folk dramas as well as the different forms of folk dramas prevalent in the state. One can also find an elaborate discussion on the folk songs of Himachal Pradesh. All in all, this book generates a vast volume of folk knowledge and wisdom. The study therefore, is entirely related to the single aspect of folk art and is confined to the oral literature of Himachal Pradesh.

G.C. Chauhan in his book, Light and Shades of Popular Beliefs in Hill States: A Case Study of Shimla Hills (2013), deals with the folklores, beliefs and superstitions, rites and rituals, myths and mythology, legendary tales and conventions and traditions of the  people of Himachal Pradesh. The purpose of the book is depicted in its prologue. The book is an anthropological approach to the basic social psychology of people of the Shimla hill states. The author argues that the myths and ritual behavior function as a conceptual apparatus in the life of a family, a tribe or a community.  A large number of rites are performed with a view to achieve some goal or end. The book also depicts the Shamanistic beliefs of the people of the region, their beliefs that the deities or devtas dwell in rivers, springs and streams, in valleys and hills, in stones and rocks, in woods and forests,  and the fact that they live everywhere. The book Lights and Shades of Popular Beliefs in Hill States reflects the idea that there is a veil separating the living with the dead but at the same time shows the unending relations between the dead and the living through shamanic rituals and practices.

Vikram Bhardwaj and Usha Sharma in their paper Gods and Cults: Folk Traditions and Cultural Memory in the Shimla Hills (2020), highlights the oral narratives, folk traditions, legends, rituals, beliefs and practices in the Shimla hills and how they have emerged, what do they signify, what historicity they possess. The paper examines the beliefs in the existence of superhuman and supernatural power in the area of the study, which has a rich stock of myths, legends, religious beliefs associated with deities, heroes and cults and how these play an important role in the customary practices and behavior of the masses. The work deals with the Gods and Heroes of Shimla hill states and the folklore associated with them and how they act as guardians of the traditional value system. On the basis of different beliefs and religious practices prevailing among the people of the region of the Western Himalayas, the author argues that the people practice polytheism. The paper also highlights the role of Gur (shaman) as the intermediary between the people and the village deity. The author concludes that the religious and cultural practices of the Western Himalayan people are an admixture of Hinduism and beliefs in supernaturalism i.e. they are influenced by the Hindu cosmology and metaphysics as well as the supernatural world of totems, myths and animism.

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