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Doves constitute the bird family Columbidae within the order Columbiformes, which include 318 species. Though abundant throughout Indian Territory and considered sacred and auspicious, dove has faced steep decline in its population during last two decade or so, With an aim to understand threats, the species is facing in the study area (Churu, Bikaner, Jhunjhunu) districts of the Arid Zone of Rajasthan and to suggest, measures its conservations. Ecological studies on Done were carried out from 2009 to 2011. The Paper is based on the main threats and factors which are responsible for declination of dove population.

Conti, J. A. 1980, Varghese, Erling. H. 1957. Forrester et al. described the approximately 80 infections diseases are diagnosed in the bird, of them some like viral and bacterial are serious cause of death to the species. Flickinger, studied on adverse effect of pesticides and other contaminants on the dove and come to the conclusion that organophosphates degrade quickly in nature. Gill, Frank ; Donsker, David ; Rasmussen, pamele, eds (2020), ‘’Pigeons'',IOC World Bird List Version 10.1. International ornithologests union retrieved 6 March 2020.

Threats are categorized in three points:-

1.     Natural crisis

2.     Human Activities

3.     Diseases

Natural Crisis-

1.     Accidents - In our study area we found that these birds are prone to vehicles plying on road and colliding with these high speed Vehicles. We observed 21 events  of vehicle accidents during the whole study period. Generally the accidental events occur in day when doves feed on road.

2.     Nestling - Nest is just a platform of twigs, many of time eggs fall down because of poor construction of nest. Nest loss is also very common due to weather, predation or disturbance. Doves that nested in old nests had greater nesting success than new constructed nests.

3.     Electrocution - Generally dove rest and roost on trees and electric pole for security from predators. In the study area it has been observed that they roost in dense trees near villages in cultivated field, near water bodies, where trees are less in number they roost on high power electric pylons. During rainy season, generally the birds get electrocuted.

4.     Natural crisis - The climate of the Study area is very hot and hostile. Temperature many a time rise above 48° c in summers & dips below freezing point (-1° c) in winters. The summer storms travel from North-West to South-East & it may sometimes bring hails & thunder shower, when ever storms occur in large number of trees fall down, branches get broken which are the roosting sites of the dove. Due to this large number of doves die every year. 

5.     Human Activities - Today the climatic conditions of whole world is changing fast due to man's activities for his best possible life and who has been exploiting the nature & natural habitats of birds. Entire biotic community along with the Physical environment has been disturbed.

6.     Hunting - Doves are mercilessly hunted by all over India for their meat Bishnoi community in the Thar protects the wild life in general. In Churu region Bishnoi population is very scarie.

Use of Insecticides & Pesticides:- The use of higher concentration of environmental contamination organochlorines and PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyl), 2 VD ( a weedicide is a major reason of mortility in or around irrigated fields in several parts of India. Acute poisoning with organophosphates, organochlorines or PCBs results in neurologic signs, Chronic poisoning Dieldrin & Aldrin were found to be extremely toxic. Doves feeds on seeds & growing crops sprinkled with insecticides & die. Stone (1979) reported the deaths of hundreds of birds, mostly doves in on area where a farmer was suspected a poisoning depredatory birds. Dove was one of the Principal Species involved in the mortality of 500 birds in Massachusetts due to parathion (National wildlife Health Research Center, 1982) The Carbomate oxamyl killed 186 doves in Tennessee (National wild life Heath Research center, 1983). At least 300 birds of which the dove was one of the Principal species involved, were killed of by Carbofuran in Illinois (National wild life Heath Research center, 1984) Another factor which is generally responsible for it's mass mortality is sowing of fungicide treated seeds. Many of the times farmers deliberately spread the poison treated seeds to avoid crop losses.

Diseases of Dove

Most common diseases in the dove are divided in categories for easy understand.

Parasites Protozoan Disease

Coccidiosis  - As with many parasites coccidion infections may become a problem only when continuous reinfection reaches pathogenic, levels, espacially in young susceptible birds. This could occur if doves are heavily concentrated in certain feeding areas or in captive flocks where infection stages of the parasite could be ingested easily. Infected stages of Sarcocystis are picked up by doves from contaminated soil and water. Sarcocystic sp. was found ins 13%. of 255 doves examined in a Study involving twelve states of the Southeasten United States (Barrows & Hayes 1977) and in 8% of 455 doves examined in Florida (Conti & Forrester 1981)

Blood Parasite :- The most common blood parasite identified in doves is the protozoan Haemoproteus columbae. The other species of blood protozoans reported from doves are Leucocytozoan marchouri, Plasmodium elongatum, P. hexamerium, P. Polare, P.relicutum, P. cathmerion and Trypanosoma avium. It is generally believed that the vectors are black flies, hippoboscid flies (Blood sucking arthropods) More than 90%. of the doves were found infected by H. columbia in one area of U.S (Shamis and Forrester 1977).
Flagellates Protozoan - Trichomonas gallinae is highly motile flagellated protozoan that normally resides in the mouth, oesophagus and crop of many spp. of columbiforms. The organism was 1^st described from a pigeon in Italy in 1878. Mouth lesions often inhibet or prevent feeding resulting in severe emaciation & eventually death. Extensive investigations during 1950-51 in Alabama (south eastern states) alone led to the belief that mortality primarily among breeding birds, could easily have totaled 25,000 to 50,000 doves each year (Haugen & freeler, 1952) T.gallinae is believed to have killed 750 doves associated with bird feeders from April to July 1985, in Las Cruces, New Mexico (National wild life Health Research Centre 1985)

Ciliated Protozoan - Colpoda steini has been found in the saline of doves. This large rapidly moving ciliate was 1st recognized in 76 of 240 doves in Lovisiana, 18 of 36 doves in Florida & 3 of 58 doves in Arizone (Toepfer 1964, Kocan, 1968)

Nematoda - Ornithostrongylus quadriradiatus, a small thread like intestinal nematoda probably is the most common helminthes of doves. Barrows & Hayes (1977) reported 51%. of 255 mouring doves examined from 25 collected sites in 12 South-eastern states to be infected with O. quadriradiatus.

1.     Ascaris columbae is a robust nematode that lives in the small intestine of Columbiforms. Unlike Ornithostrongylus it is easily observed because of its large size. Nearly 31% of 455 doves harbored. A Columbae in the Fluoride study (Forrester et al. 1983)

2.     D13 pharynx nasuta is a ubiquitous nematode in wild birds.

3.     D. nasuta could ever become a Serious problem in doves since they are Pre dominantly vegetarians. A severve Proventriculities occurs when this worn is present in large numbers, and it has been associated with Pathologic changes, illnees & death of grouse, turkeys & Pigeons (Goble & Kutz 1945, Bendell 1955, Hwang et.al. 1961 Wehr 1971, Hon et. al. 1975). Doves either are injesting sow buys intentionally or mistaking them for seeds, since these invertebrate intermediate hosts from a round ball as a defensive posture.

Ectoparasites - The Studies by Hanson et,al (1957) & Illinois and Conti & Forrester (1981) in Florida Provide baseline information about the more common species of mites & lice that occur on these birds. The two most common mites found on doves are Diplaegidia Sp. & Faculifer sp. of 96 doves examined from Florida 44% and 48% respecticively, were infected with low numbers of these feather mites ( Conti & Forrester 1981) A nasal mite Tinaminyssus Zenaidurae was found on 6% of 96 doves from Florida. Stran dtmann (1961) reported 15% of 74 doves from Texas harboring the nasal mite T. zenaidurai. Ornithonyssus sylviarum was commonly found in the nests of doves from lowa & Illinois (Mc. Clure 1943, Hanson et. al. 1957). Four species of biting lice were found in the feathers of 96 mourning doves from Florida with the following prevalences Columbicola macrourae (35%) Bonomiella columbae (24%) Physconelloides zenaidurae (19%) Honorstiella paladinella (1%) (Cinti and Forrester 1981)

Viruses 

Avian Pox - It is a viral infection of birds that results in lesions on the skin and or mucous membranes of the mouth & upper respiratory track ( Karstad 1971). In doves, the pox virus is manifested in 2 forms cutaneous & diphtheritic. Cutaneous pox is the most common and noticeable form because it is characterized by variable sized nodule around the eyes, at the base of the beak, on the top the head and on the legs and feet ( Locke et al. 1960a). Avian pox is highly contagious and susceptible birds can become infected either through mechanical transmission by mosquitoes hippoboscid flies or biting midges or from direct or indirect contact with virus through other infected birds (Karstad 1971).

Bacteria- Very little is known about bacterial organismes harbored by doves. There is only from one survey involving 100 doves from Oklahoma where extensive microbiologcal studies were conducted (Carpenter et. al. 1972) Cultures were made from nasal sinuses, trachae, lungs, air sacs, intestines. & cloacas to determine the presence of bacteria pathogens. The most commen respiratory bacteria isolated were Moraxella - like & Pasteurella-like organisms in 47%. and 37 to 59%. of the doves respectively. 

Lead- Doves are at risk for ingestion of lead from contaminated road side grit & transmit from adult to juveniles via the egg and probably by feeding of crop milk. Lead poisioned doves show lesions in the Kidney & liver, lesions in the testes and inhibition of spermatogenens disrupt egg production or lessen the fertility of eggs.

Measures for Conservations- Today around 59 species of doves and pigeon are categorized as globally threatned with extinction, this is 19% of all species and further 13% (38) species of are near threatned. Passenger pigeon formerly one of the Most abundant birds in the U.S become extinct because of over exploitation. Socorro dove is extinct in the world. Polynesian ground dove is Classified as critically endangered as it is unknown whether it survives or not. Negev fruit dove have no recorded sightings of it Since 1953, it may or may not be extinct. Andaman Cuckoo-dove is near threathed sp. of dove. In recent years population of dove is declining rapidly. Specis of doves Common in Arid zone of Rajasthan are Indian Ring Dove (Streptopelia decaocto decaocto), Indian Red Turtle Dove (S. tranquebarica), Laughing dove (S.senegalensis), Spotted Dove(S. Chinensis suratensis). They are mostly observed near agriculture areas and few in localities. Only Indian Ring Dove & Indian Red turtle Dove are seen in localities during the study period in Arid zone of Rajasthan.

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