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| Contextualizing Natural Environment in Garhwali Oral Folklore | |||||||
| Paper Id :
16648 Submission Date :
02/10/2022 Acceptance Date :
20/10/2022 Publication Date :
25/10/2022
This is an open-access research paper/article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. For verification of this paper, please visit on
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| Abstract | Oral history is one of the important aspects of the Indian past. It exists since time immemorial. They are embedded in the minds of the common masses and are revered in the same way as was done thousands of years ago. Due to reliance on the force of nature, these oral traditions were more focused on that. Thus, the given paper analyzes the oral sources of Garhwal which revere the natural milieu. Relative isolation due to rugged terrains and thus close affinity with nature shows the uniqueness of the culture. Involvement of nature in every task of the day and thus reminiscing it as a living entity is quite apparent in the region. The given paper includes various oral folklore, songs, fables, proverbs, and idioms to show how nature has a great influence over the indigenous people. Furthermore, personal interviews have been taken to comprehend the affinity of people with nature. | ||||||
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| Keywords | Oral tradition, Folk culture, Garhwal Himalaya, Folklore, Environment | ||||||
| Introduction |
Culture holds an important place in society. It embodies various aspects, and such is represented in mythologies, foods, customs, attire, adornments, and so on. Culture represents a civilization; it identifies the community and distinguishes it from others in existence. The umbrella term for all the facets of a culture that are in oral form and intangible is termed folklore.
Nonetheless, Orality is one aspect of folklore that weakens the very fact that the associated stories are or were real in nature or mere fictional and make-beliefs. One deems to assess their credibility, yet folklore cannot be rejected merely on the basis given above and the reason is its universality. From Europe to America and from Asia to Australia, they are in vogue ubiquitously.
Peter Burke in his research article, “History and Folklore: A Historiographical Survey”, talks of historical folklore and endeavors to connect the dots between a discipline and a non-discipline, i.e., history and folklore, thus he attempts at saying that history can be testified on such basis. Precisely, the regions which were not documented properly and also the region where tribal and rural populace dominates the region, there folklores help understand their pasts.
The culture which is in existent in oral form is termed intangible culture. Regarding intangible culture, UNESCO clearly says that cultural heritage does not end at monuments and collections of objects, rather it also includes traditions or living expressions inherited from the ancestors and passed on to descendants in many forms and oral traditions are one of them.
Thus, the chief aim of the paper is to study certain folklores of the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand and then to analyze the representation of nature in them and to analyze how these folklores have helped shape the core culture of the region. The paper can be read with the view that change in society did not bring many changes to the folklore of the distant past and is still practiced in the same manner and enthusiasm.
The spatial choice for the concern of the paper is the Central Himalayan region, i.e., Garhwal. The relative isolation and sparse yet diverse population make the customs and folklore of the region unique in nature. The amalgamation of numerous cultures of the plain provides inimitability.
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| Aim of study | The study aims at exploring the oral folklore of the Garhwal region, which are heard and practiced from time immemorial to the present times. The following objectives have been kept in mind while doing the given study- 1) To explore oral folklore and its association with the daily lives of people of the region to understand the culture. 2) To understand how they are in vogue and how people are managing to preserve them, despite the onset of modernity and subsequent loss of culture. | ||||||
| Review of Literature | There is clearly a dearth
of scholarly work on the given topic, merely because the state was recently
carved out of Uttar Pradesh, thus whatever politico-cultural sources it holds,
somewhat lacks the entirety of knowledge of the region. It should be made clear
for the readers though, that the region-based scholars of recent times are
inclining their works in this motion and attempting to delineate the
historicity of this region. Rai Pati Ram Bahadur’s, ‘Garhwal: Ancient and
Modern' (1916), is considered to study the historical aspects of the region.
The work provides detailed information on the region from historical to
politico-cultural and economic aspects. The book was written in colonial times
so one might find certain partisan approaches towards the reign of the then
times, but otherwise, the work gives detailed and apt knowledge, and it is
appropriately used to acquaint the readers with the region. Since the concerned study
is based on the topic of oral tradition, thus one cannot stress enough the
paucity of written records for oral sources and there is yet a long way to go
until they are to be preserved in a way that sufficiency of written documents
might compensate the loss of oral culture and moreover to sustain them for the
generations to know. Pandit Ganga Dutt Upreti’s work (1894), ‘Proverbs and
Folklores of Kumaon and Garhwal’, gives a good insight into the sayings and maxims
that the common masses of the region use on daily basis. The works how age-old
sayings are used figuratively, to depict diurnal works and the morals that kins
wish to pass on to their progenies. The work is an apt contribution in the path
of acquainting the readers with the axioms of the region and how they are based
on the nature and topography of the region. In fact, one might surmise that
these adages are the derivates of human dependence on its natural milieu. ‘Garhwali Lokgeet’ (2019)
written by Govind Chatak lines up various categories of songs sung on different
occasions. Each season, festival, and occasion have a song associated with it,
and his work serves as an account for all those folk songs which are intangible
possessions of the region and thus the work acknowledges that. On the other
hand, ‘Folk Tales of Uttarakhand’ (2008) by Deepa Aggarwal is a children’s book
of folk tales that are quite specific to the region and well-versed among kids
by their elders as bedtime stories or the stories with morals and ethics. Ramakant Benjwal (2021) in his work Garhwal Himalaya acquaints us with the fundamentals of the Garhwal region. In his work, he focuses on the history, culture, tourism, and other aspects of the land. The work helps one in understanding the core culture of the land. One can relate the diversity of Garhwali culture due to the admixture of people who migrated here from the plains. |
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| Main Text | Central Himalayan region, Garhwal is blessed with dense
forest, serene mountains, picturesque valleys, and rivers that cut them in two
like a sharp knife. The region lacks a chronologically recorded past yet
finds its antiquity in age-old scriptures and literature of substance.[1] Everywhere else, the region is outlined by its close
association with the natural environment. Celebration of festivals and rituals
in coherence with nature has always been a forte of the region. From Folksongs, dance, and other folk- aspects, the
region finds a reflection of nature. For instance, the seasons are not only
having harmony with the natural phenomena but it is also associated with the
daily lives of the masses living in the region. Thus, there are several folk
songs that ladies sing and celebrate with the onset of a season. Take an
example of the spring season. The season which blesses us with enchanting
flowers and foliage, the Garhwal and Kumaon region of Uttarakhand celebrate the
festival of Phool Dei. Females and young girls rejoice and sing various songs.
One of which goes like this- “फूल देई, छिमा देई Which translates to mean that; the flowers are placed on
the door, kindly forgive. May the goddess fill house with grains! With the
onset of Sankranti, we offer you flowers, oh goddess. May God bless and fill
the granaries and all flourish with food and wealth! Just like this year, keep
coming and let the flowers bloom like this. Until we live, may the flower
Sankranti keep coming again. Many such songs exist that are sung on auspicious
occasions. Take another example of Shri Panchami, when in the songs sung at the
occasion, one talks about barley to be offered to lord Shiva for a healthy
harvest. The verse goes like this- ज्यो ल्यो पंचनाम देवता। ज्यो ल्यो। ज्यो ल्यो पंचमी का साले, ज्यो ल्यो। ज्यो ल्यो पैले हरी- राम- शिव, ज्यो ल्यो ! ज्यो ल्यो पैली मोरी का नारैण,ज्यो ल्यो ![3] This means- Hey five gods, please take our offer of
barley! On the first day of Panchami kindly take our barley! Hari, Rama, and
shiva, kindly accept our barley! Narayana, who is seated on the lion, please
accept this barley! Ganesha who is dwelling on the window, foremost you accept
this barley! Jhumelo geet are sung by ladies in the month of February
and March. Ladies sing and dance to these songs in the vicinity of the nature.
They gather in jungles and fields and sing and weep in the longing of their parental
homes. Some of the verses of the song goes like this: “बारा मैना को बारा ऋतु आली झुमैलो This song expresses women’s melancholy. All are gathered
in the jungle and reminiscing about their parental homes. Nature is their only
aide, secret keeper, and partner in happy and sad times. all women sing in sync
in parallel tones. Many such songs can be heard when traveling through the
rugged terrains and beautiful villages of Garhwal. Songs in a way are leisure
for the women who work hard in homes and in fields as well. Anjali Capila in
her seminal work, “Images of Women in the folk songs of Garhwal Himalayas: A
Participatory Research,” divides these folk songs into the broad categories of
songs concerning the natural environment and others concerning the
socio-cultural environment. She further sub-categorizes the folk songs on the
natural environment into songs about descriptions of the land, seasons, trees,
and of water.[5] Chatak further classifies them on the basis of
various occasions and thus Jagar, Mangal geet, Basanti, Chaiti, Pranya geet,
etc. are in vogue in the region.[6] Some folk songs are dedicated to the nature god. For instance,
folk song Paiya Dali reveres the tree god and tells people to give offerings to
the newly budding trees. Likewise, folksong “Ganga Mai” goes like: “गंगा साई गाड़ू रिग्या ओद, This means: Hey mother Ganga, you originate from the
great Himalayas! You touch the feet of Brahma and converge in shiva’s locks! Likewise, there are several proverbs and idioms used in
daily life by the indigenous people. Instances of nature to depict
diurnal lives are quite common in this mountainous region. For instance, “Garha
ko chhalo dhura ko palo” is a proverb that means that rivers and
mountains are no one’s property and thus everyone holds common rights over
them. Likewise, “Dhaka ka tina pata,” the
literal meaning of which is that the Dhaka tree which is a local sacred tree
contains only three leaves and it represents three stages of life, i.e., birth,
life, and death. People use the phrase to mean that one cannot get more than
his destined fate. “Gandu hathi ghara ki phauja marau,” means
that a foul person destroys his own house. “Helu ka bhaga le melu
paka”- translate to mean that wild pears have ripened to the good luck
of a jackal, which abstractly means that when one is at the brink of ruin and a
lucky incident happens, that saves the situation. “Hunyari dali ka chala- chala pata”- that a promising
tree bears shining leaves and is applied in the case of a promising young boy
or a girl. “Barha latha ki barhi khata”- big timber makes a big bed,
conveys that great people should do great deeds. Adara ka chana beadara ka
dacha,[8] which says that half a gram given with courtesy is
better than grapes bestowed with contempt. Similarly, if we look at the routine worship pattern, we
find that nature is an indispensable part of it. for instance, Mango leaves are
used in homes to cast away the evil spirit. Likewise, the kush plant is used in
the jneu and shradh ceremonies. People make images of Brahma from the leaves of
kush because it is named after one of the sons of lord Rama.[9] Festivals of the region are mainly derived from nature
and are devoted to the force of nature and one such is the Ramman festival. The
festival which has recently managed to make a place in the list of UNESCO
intangible cultural heritage is mainly celebrated in the Chamoli district.
Devoted to the local deity, Bumiyal Devta, this festival alongside reflecting
the cultural, and spiritual concept, also reflects the environmental concept of
the community, which celebrates it.[10] The history of this ritual theatre of the community goes
way back in the past, but due to a lack of written sources about it, the ritual
has only traces in oral form. This local deity embodies the entity which is said
to protect the community’s produce from wild animals and natural disasters as
well.[11] people prepare masks of deities and dance to the songs
of Jagar. The festival encompasses attires and masks specific to this festival
and acts as a way of entertainment for the local people. Bissu, another festival of Garhwal is derived from the
word, Baisakhi. It is mainly celebrated with pomp and music. The fields are
worshipped, and a game of bow and arrow is played. Especially the jaunsari
tribe celebrates this mela by adorning traditional attires and singing songs.
“thauda”, a combat style, is displayed here. Females of the tribe huddle up and
perform traditional harul and Tandi dance forms.[12] Obtaining food and fodder from the wild is a daily task
of the women population of Garhwal, and thus to cast away the boredom they sing
several songs. One such which is quite famous and sung all over Garhwal and
Kumaon is “Bedu Pako.” Some of the lines of this song goes like this- “बेडु पाको बारा मासा, Which means- “Bedu fruit has ripened. It grows all year
round, but kafal only grows in spring. Spring season is here, so take me to my
father’s home. Similarly, Bajuband geet, a series of narrative songs are
sung by the ladies in their daily lives. The songs are sung by married ladies
who reminisce about the kin’s home and associated memories. Genthi also known as wild Yam, kandalee, bhangjeera, Ram
Tulsi, Jamboo are some of the wild edibles found in the region and people use
derive them extensively from the wilderness only.[13] the myths relating to the edibles are many. For
instance, village women use bhangzeera oil to massage a newborn as it is said
to be packed with nutrients.[14] Some songs are dedicated for the prohibition to cut trees
and one such song goes like this- “राजों का बाग्यवान ब्वै, केकी डाली होली The song translates to mean- “hey mother, which tree is
this in the king’s garden? is it an orange tree. If it is, then eat orange, but
do not tweak the branches. Which tree is this in the king’s garden? Is it an
orange tree? It is a lemon tree. Take the lemons, but do not cut off the tree. Likewise, the folksong “Dali Na Todi” goes like this- “को छै बटोया, घाम छ तैलू It translates to mean- hey traveler, who are you? It is
hot; you must sit in the shed of the tree for a while, but you should not pluck
the branches; go and splash water on your face, the shed would relieve you from
the scorching heat. Birds chirp under the shadow of the tree; who are you,
traveler? It is hot; you must sit under the tree. Both the songs interpret to mean the significance of the
force of nature in the native’s lives. They are the custodians of their nature
in the vicinity. Also, many folktales exclusive to the region are told by
the elders. These folktales are told by grandparents as a bedtime story, yet in
a way, they narrate the communities past. One such is, “The kaffal is ripe.”
According to the fable, when the kaafal fruit ripes, two sounds of two birds
echo all around. Listening to their chirps, natives narrate that they were once
mother and daughter. They went to the forest to gather kaafal and came back
home with a basket full. The mother told the daughter to not eat kaafal until
her father returns. As the sun sets kaafal shrinks in size, but unaware of this
daughter sits quietly. When the mother returns after finishing the chores, she
looks at the basket and sees that the basket is not full. At the sight, she
asks her daughter if she ate kaafal, to which the daughter denies it. Furious
mother decides to punish her for telling lies. Fretted daughter runs but mother
catches her and as she was about to lay her hands over her, the daughter cries
with fear and screams that she did not lie and within no time she turns into a
bird and flew off. Seeing this, the mother refuses to believe whatever
happens and goes back home with the hope that her daughter would be there, but
she was not there. She looks at the kaafal, those shrunken kaafal plumped again
and made the basket full. mother realizes the mistake and cries loud in sorrow
and soon turns into a bird. Since that day, natives say that of two birds, one
who is daughter cries in vain and says, “kaafal pako, maile na chakho” (kaafal
have grown, but I have not tasted them), and the other who is presumed to be
mother says, “Pur Putai, pure, pir! (I was wrong).[17] Another folktale, “God protect the river,” is quite
famous in the villages of Pauri Garhwal. According to the fable, God protects
the river at night and thus no one can go to the river to take bath at night,
and if anyone does then he might go insane. There is no witness to the fact of
this fable, yet people believe it to be true to this day. Several myths, folk songs, fables, and idioms relating to
the surroundings are quite prevalent in the region. The above given examples
are few among many which represent the community beliefs and daily lives and
the way they assimilate nature into their daily lives. In correspondence with the village head[18] of village Simalna Malla in district Pauri Garhwal,
I came to know that the songs are an indispensable part of a villager’s life.
Since the only population left in the village is old age people, many are
deemed illiterate and due to the paucity of technological advancements in the
typical villages, songs and folklore are a means of entertainment for them. Further, she says that songs in association with nature
are popularly sung because nature provides them with food and fodder. Isolated
from mainstream society, indigenous are still dependent on the forests for
basic means of necessity. Cow dung cakes are still used for the cooking Village men of Simalana Talla, Madan Mohan Rawat[19] explain that nature gives them everything that they
need and thus the force of nature is still revered and worshipped in earlier
times. due to isolation, the culture of mainstream castes and tribals is quite
similar, and thus more than bartering the things of their needs they also
barter each other’s culture. A village woman[20] informed that deriving sustenance from nature is
their right and in return taking care of nature in proximity is their duty and
thus they do not allow outsiders to come into their village. She further went
on to say that outsiders have corrupted the culture of many villages. In fact,
many villagers[21] have been lured to the city area for regular work
and wage and that is why several villages in the proximity have been deserted
by the people thus resulting in the loss of the community’s culture and
heritage.
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| Methodology | The given study is mainly based on primary and secondary sources. Primary sources consist of personal interviews taken from the people of villages Simalana Malla, Simalana Bichalla, Simalana Talla, Narai, Khundra, Dhura Pauri, Uliyal, and Keshta of Pauri district. Secondary sources in the form of books, research articles, literature reviews, and information from official websites of organizations such as UNESCO, etc. have been gathered for the purpose of the study. |
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| Tools Used | Interviews | ||||||
| Findings | It is pertinent that the people of the masses are very much dependent on the natural milieu. They derive their means of sustenance from nature. Due to relative isolation from the plains, hilly districts still follow primitive life. Thus, their dependence on the environment can be better understood by studying the oral traditions of the region. The given study has tried to focus on the oral culture with specificity to nature and those folk songs, tales and traditions have been highlighted here which focus on nature. Moreover, their affinity with nature is evident in songs such as ‘Kaiki Dali Holi’ and ‘Dali Na Todi.’ The indigenous feels an obligation to safeguard nature in the sense that it is a provider and thus their responsibility is to reciprocate the favor by protecting it. In fact, Chipko movement reiterates this harmonious relationship between man and nature of the region. Bajuband Geet on the other hand are songs sung in daily lives. Due to a lack of the means of entertainment in the past, women used to enjoy singing such melodies in harmony with others while performing daily chores, and thus this tradition has been carried on from olden times to the present time, which gradually became a part of women’s daily tasks. Songs such as ‘Jhumelo’ and ‘Bedu Pako’ are season-specific songs and are sung in certain seasons to represent the onset of a new season. Thus, several such songs and other traditions are mentioned above, to understand the significance of nature in the lives of the indigenous. On a consequential side, the villages are getting abandoned due to the mass migration of natives to other towns in search of modern life and better employment opportunities. Uniyal village of Pauri district is left with only one family. While talking to the family head, Dawal Singh Bhandari, I came to know that this village is soon to be a ghost village as the other houses are already in ruins and the only home is in livable condition, which is his. He further told that the people once went to town for employment, never came back, and eventually, the village lost its dwellers. Another village, Dhaura Pauri is in the same condition as only two families are left. Khundra village has only 3 families left and the same is the condition with Narai village. These villages are situated in proximity and to save what is left in the name of culture, these families come together on the occasions of festivals and celebrate them with traditions. Elders of the family recite songs and perform worship in yet old manners. When asked about preserving the culture, elders of the families responded by saying that there is no way this oral tradition would continue once they perish. The reason is, young people of the family show no curiosity to know about their own culture, and those who have settled in other towns are least bothered about preserving that. | ||||||
| Conclusion | Culture can be said to be an entity that existed from the time of the emergence of civilizations. This culture varies from materialistic to non-materialistic, from tangible to intangible. Oral tradition can be said as an intangible culture and asset of a community. The oral transmission of Vedas over several centuries is one of the biggest examples of that. Preservation of such culture in the memories of people without having the source of any written or engraved evidence is what shows that India possesses a great deal of such oral culture. From verses to fables, myths, legends, and folk songs; the Indian oral culture comprises all that. India has an amazing diversity of cultures as every part of the country holds a unique set of cultures. The paper here discussed the uniqueness of oral culture that the Garhwal division of Uttarakhand holds. It sheds a light on the ways that nature has been contextualized in the oral form. Nature is an inseparable part of the lives of the hill people of Garhwal. From rituals to season songs, from fables to myths and proverbs to idioms and daily life lore, nature leaves its traces everywhere. Natives are quite attached to nature and along with deriving daily life needs from nature, they have derived various other cultural narratives. Those narratives are otherwise not present in written form but are quite in vogue in oral form. On every auspicious occasion, reverence for nature is an attestation of the fact that people are close to nature and treat it as an inseparable living entity, just as any family member. Celebration of nature in oral forms is also not new to the Garhwali community. Integration with nature is an inextricable part of their culture. In fact, the caste-based society is still primitive in nature and thus one might find a great deal of similarity between them and the tribes of that region. Thus, it is pertinent to preserve this unique brotherliness by conserving the oral form of this culture. People who still manage to safeguard such intangible culture are few now. Due to the large migration of people to the city areas, or the influx of modern education in the region, the new generation is losing a touch with them, and thus danger of this culture becoming inexistent one day is likely to be soon. Hence, oral sources are important components of subalterns’ past and to know and to place them in history is important therefore oral sources must be well-preserved and sought after to write and re-write the past. This becomes more pertinent and specific to regions like Garhwal, which plays in the lap of nature, and this has gone a long way to shape the cultural pattern of inhabitants. | ||||||
| Suggestions for the future Study | Oral traditions must be preserved for the knowledge and understanding of the culture of the region. | ||||||
| Limitation of the Study | Only oral sources which were available were included in the paper. | ||||||
| Acknowledgement | Acknowledged those participants who willingly participated in the interview. | ||||||
| References | 1.R.N. Vyas, Nature of Indian Culture, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi,1992, pp 11-12
2 Kondi, Bledar, ‘Folklore’, ResearchGate (2019), accessed 04 July 2022,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330450093_Folklore
3 Peter Burke, ‘History and Folklore: A Historiographical Survey. Folklore (2004), accessed 12 July 2022,
https://is.muni.cz/el/phil/jaro2014/ETMB75/02_Burke_History_and_Folklore_13929110.pdf
4 Meeta, Deka, ‘Folklore and Northeast Indian History’ Scientific Research: Sociology mind Vol. I, No.4(2011),
accessed on 24 August 2022, https://file.scirp.org/pdf/SM20110400004_12035703.pdf
5 Pdf on ‘What is intangible cultural heritage?’ Retrieved from the official website of UNESCO. Accessed on 01
September, 2022, https://ich.unesco.org/doc/src/01851-EN.pdf
6 Mily Roy, Anand, ‘Folk Legends as Mirrors of People’s Experiences: The Virgathas of Kumaon and Garhwal’
Indian Folklore Research Journal, No. 10, 2010, p 84, accessed on 02 August 2022,
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.730.822&rep=rep1&type=pdf
7 Rai Pati Ram Bahadur, Garhwal: Ancient and Modern, Army Press, Agra, 1916, pp 1-2
8 Govind Chatak, Garhwali Lookgeet, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2019, p 31
9 Ibid, p 32.
10 Accessed from online source via https://rb.gy/oigcb3
11 Anjali Capila, Images of Women in the folk songs of Garhwal Himalayas: A Participatory Research, Concept
Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2002, p 37
12 Ibid, p 36
13 Govind Chatak, p 24.
14 All the proverbs and idioms have been taken from Pandit Ganga Datt Upreti’s book Proverb and folklore of
Kumaon and Garhwal, Lodiana Mission Press, Lodiana, 1894
15 Balwant Kumar, ‘Major Religious Plants of Rudraprayag District (Garhwal), Uttarakhand (India)’
Ethnobotanical Leaflet 13: 1476-84,2009, accessed on 10 September 2022,
https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.832.7471&rep=rep1&type=pdf16 ‘Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, India’, accessed on 15 July 2022,
https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/ramman-religious-festival-and-ritual-theatre-of-the-garhwal-himalayas-india-
00281
17 Ramman: Religious Festival and Ritual Theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, accessed on 25 July 2022,
https://www.indianculture.gov.in/intangible-cultural-heritage/social-practices-rituals-and-festive-
events/ramman-religious-festival
18 D.R. Purohit, ‘Fairs and Festivals, Places, Occasions, and Events’, accessed on 01, September 2022,
https://www.esamskriti.com/essays/pdf/FESTIVALS%20OF%20GARWHAL.pdf, p 374
19 D.R. Purohit, ‘Fairs and Festivals, Places, Occasions, and Events’, accessed on 01, September 2022,
https://www.esamskriti.com/essays/pdf/FESTIVALS%20OF%20GARWHAL.pdf, p 374
20 Sumitra Gaur, Simalana Malla village. Telephonic interview, 05 September 2022.
21 Govind, Chatak, p 24
22 Ibid, p 35
23 Deepa Aggarwal, Folk Tales of Uttarakhand, Children Book Trust, New Delhi, 2008, pp 9-13
24 Suman Devi Gaur- Village head, Simlana Malla village, Pauri Garhwal, Telephonic Interview (12 September
2022).
25 Madan Mohan Rawat, Vikram Singh Rawat, Bheem Singh Rawat, Simlana Talla village, Pauri Garhwal.
Telephonic interview. 15 September 2022.
26 Devendra Gaur, Simlana Malla village, Pauri Garhwal. Telephonic interview, 12 September 2022.
27 Brij Mohan Rawat, Satyendra Rawat & Govind Singh Rawat, Village- Simalana Bichalla. Telephonic interview,
17 September 2022.
28 Dawal Singh Bhandari, Uliyal village. Personal interview, 13 January 2022.
(Note- The village is often called a ghost village, which means that only 1 family is left in the village, while the rest
have abandoned their houses and settled in the towns elsewhere)
29 Mohan Lal Keshtwal, Keshta village. Personal interview, 14 January 2022.
(Note- 30 families residing in the village. The village is about 3 Km from Simalana Malla.
30 Prakash Chandra Gaur, Khundra village. Telephonic interview, 14 September 2022.
(Note- only 3 families are left in the village).
31 Jeet Singh Negi, Dhura Pauri village. Telephonic interview, 14 July 2022.
(Note- 2 families reside in this village).
32 Subhash Chandra Gaur, Narai village. Telephonic interview, 23 September 2022.
(Note- only 3 families are left in the village).
33. Ramakant Benjwal, Garhwal Himalaya: Itihas, Sanskriti, Bhasha, Yatra Evam Paryatan (3rd Ed.), Winsar Publishing Co., Dehradun, 2021, p 295 |
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