1. Pupil Teacher System (1801-1882)

(i)  Attempts of Danish Missionaries:- Systematic training of teachers began in India with the opening of training Institutions by the Danish Missionaries. Their system was based on the "monitoring system". Each class was divided into small groups and each group was under the charge of monitor. The first normal school was set up at Serampore. The presidencies in the third decade of nineteenth century in their respective areas. Central school for teacher training was started in Madras in 1826. Normal schools were opened in Poona, Bombay, Agra, Meerut and Benaras during 1850-57.

(ii)  Wood's Dispatch, 1854: the famous Wood's Dispatch of 1854 remarked, "we should see the establishment with as delay as possible of training schools and classes for masters in each presidency of India".

(iii) Stanley's Dispatch, 1859: the dispatch provided that salary-grant would be given to only those school which had trained staff. Consequently, increased attention was paid to teacher training. By 1881-82, the number of normal schools rose to 116 with, 3,886 pupil teachers. Primary pass students were admitted to these schools. Sometimes even illiterate but intelligent ladies were given admission to the normal schools which prepared teachers for elementary schools only. The duration of training course varied from provide to province.

For the training of teachers for secondary classes there were two training colleges viz. Government Normal School, Madras (1856) and Lahore Training School, Lahore (1881). These schools admitted both graduates and non-graduates.

During this period, a controversy arose regarding the place of subject matter and methodology in the curriculum. There were two schools of through; one school believed that the knowledge of the subject matter was enough to make the teacher effective, while the other school advocated the study of the principles and practice of teaching in training school.

2. Teacher Training (1882-1947)

(i) Hunter Commission (1882) : This commission recommended "An examination in the principles and practice of teaching be instituted, success in which should hereafter be a condition of permanent employment as a teacher in any secondary school, Government or aided." It also suggested that separate training courses for graduates and under-graduates teachers should be introduced.

As a result of these recommendations, six training colleges and fifty training schools came into existence by the end of the nineteenth century.

(ii) The Government of India Resolution of 1904 : The government of India has resolution, 1904, on Educational Policy declared. "If the teaching in secondary school is to be raised to a higher level; if the pupils are to be cured of the tendency to rely upon learning notes and text-books by heart, if in a word, European knowledge is to be different by the methods proper to it, then it is most necessary that the teachers should them themselves be trained in the art of teaching."

1. This resolution stressed that more men of ability and experience should be enlisted to provide adequate staff of well-trained teachers. It emphasized the following.
2. The equipment of a training college should be as important as that of an Arts colleges.
3. Training course of graduates should be a one-year university course leading to a university degree. Training course for undergraduates should be of two years.
4. Theory and practice of teaching should be included in the training course.
5. A practicing school should be attached to each training college.
6. Every possible care should be taken to maintain a connection between the training college and the school.

These recommendations had a reaching effect. The member of training institutions increased and separate courses were provided for graduates and under graduates. In 1912, it was declared, "Eventually under modern system of education no teacher should be allowed to teach without a certificate that he was qualified to do so".     

(iii)  Calculate University Commission (1916-17): The Calcutta University Commission developed special attention towards teacher training and made the following recommendations:

1. The number of trained teacher should be increased.
2. Research work in education should be encouraged.
3. A demonstration school should be attached with each training college.
4. The subject of education should be included in the curriculum of B.A. and Intermediate classes.
5. Education department should be established in various Universities.  

(iv)  Hartog Committee (1929):- The Hartog Committee laid down the following important recommendations about the training of Primary Teachers:

1. The standard of general education of Primary school teacher should be raised.
2. Duration of training courses should be lengthened.
3. Training institution should be provided with adequate staff.
4. Arrangements for in-service education of teachers should be made.
5. In place of conventional and obsolete methods, the use of modern methods is necessary.
6. Service conditions of primary school teachers should be improved and made attractive in order to attract suitable persons to the teaching profession.  
7. As a result of these recommendations, refresher courses for in-service education were organised and learning institutions were equipped with laboratories, libraries and practicing schools.  

(v) Sergent Report (1944):- The report made the following recommendations:

1. Provision should be made for training different categories of teaches – 2 years, pre-primary: 2 years Senior basic (primary); 3 years, Senior Basic Teachers; 2 years, undergraduates in High School and 1 year for graduates.
2. Suitable persons for teaching jobs should be picked up during the last 2 years of their high school course and they should be given stipends for receiving teacher training.
3. Refresher courses should be organised for giving in-service education to teacher.
4. Research facilities should be provided.

Consequently, there were many improvements in teacher training. In 1947, there were following three type of institutions :

1. Normal schools or primary training schools: Teachers of primary schools were given training in these institutions. The minimum qualification for admission being a pass at the middle school examination.
2. Secondary training schools : These schools imparted training to the teachers of middle schools only. The minimum qualification for admissino was matriculation.
3. Training Colleges : The teachers of high school were given training in these institution. Only graduates were entitled to get admission to these colleges.

Between 1906 and 1947, the proportion of training teachers to the untrained also increased appreciably. While in 1946-47 approximately 61.5% of secondary and primary teachers were trained, the percentage of trained teachers was hardly 30.0% in 1906-1907. In 1946-47 the number of teachers was about 4 lakhs in the primary, 72,000 for middle and about 88,000 for high schools. Women teachers at all levels were only 14%. There were only about 649 training school with one fourth women enrolment out of a total 39,000. The number of secondary training colleges all over the country was 42, with an enrolment of 3,000 teacher trainers. This shows that some expansion had already taken place in the pre-independence period, but keeping in view the needs of the country, it was inadequate.

Change from "Teacher Training" to "Teacher Education"

Previously 'Teacher Education' was termed as "Teacher Training". But this terminology was opposed by educations like W.H. Kilpatric and S.N. Mukerji. S.N. Mukerji also supported the above idea and remarked. "Improvement is needed in different fields of education and for this purpose teacher education is the better term because if widens the field of preparation of teacher". This change has been widely accepted all over the world. Teacher Education is a broad concept which makes it relevant to life and is based upon the vital philosophy of daily living with children.

Post-independence Development in Teacher Education: The secondary education commission (1952-53) made the following recommendations:-

1. There should be only two types of institutions for teacher-training (a) for those who have taken the school leaving certificate or higher secondary school-leaving certificate, for whom the period of training should be two years and (b) for graduates for whom the training may, for the present be one academic year, but extended as a long-term programme to two academic years.  
2. Graduate teacher training Institutions should be recognised by and affiliated to the universities which should grant the degrees, while the secondary grade training Institutions should be under the control of a separate Board appointed for the purpose.
3. The teacher-trainees should receive training in one or more of the various co-curricula activities.
4. The training colleges should, as a normal part of their work, arrange refresher courses, short intensive course in special subjects, practical training in workshops and professional conferences.
5. The training colleges should conduct research in various important aspects of pedagogy and for this purpose it should have an experimental or demonstration school.
6. No fees should be charged in training colleges, while during the period of training all the student teachers should be given suitable stipends by the state; the teachers who are already in service should be given the same salary which they were getting.
7. All training colleges should be provide adequate residential facilities so as to be able to arrange community life and other suitable activities for the trainees.
8. For the master's degree in education only trained graduates who have normally done a minimum of three years teaching should be admitted.
9. There should be a free exchange between professors in training colleges, selected headmasters of schools and inspecting officers.
10. In order to meet the shortage of women teachers special part-time training courses should be provided.

The Kothari Education Commission (1964-66): Stressed that the professional preparation of teachers, being crucial for the qualitative improvement of education, should be treated as a key area in educational development and adequate financial provision should be made for it, both at the state and National levels. The commission made significant recommendations for removing the isolation of teacher-training, improving professional education, and quality of training institutions, duration of training courses, in-service education of teachers, professional preparation of teachers in higher educatino etc.

National Policy on Educaton-1968: The National Policy on Education which was adopted by the Government included the following as far as education of teachers was concerned:

1. The emoluments and other service conditions should be adequate and satisfactory according to the teachers qualifications and responsibilities.
2. The academic freedom of teachers in pursue and publish independent studies and researches and to speak and write about significant national and international issues should be protected.
3. Teacher-education, particularly in-service education, should receive due emphasis.

National Council for Teacher Education-1973: To improve and co-ordinate the standards of teacher education in the whole country, it was felt that there should be a National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) to advise the government on matters relating to teacher education. This was formed in 1973 before launching the fifth Five Year Plan. This council in its annual meeting held on March 1976, desired that a joint session of the U.G.C. panel on teacher education and the relevant committees of the NCTE may consider and recommend suitable reforms in the programmes of teacher education. Ultimately, a framework was prepared which could serve as a useful guide in restructuring teacher education in our country in the years to come.

Justification for using the term "Teacher Education"; Teacher Education is a better term than Teacher Training. As W.H. Kilpertric, the famous American educationist, once stated that one trains circus performers and animals, but one educates teacher. Since independence, a new concept of teacher training has tended to develop. It is due to the following factors:

Now, there is a tendency all over the world to replace to term 'teacher training' by 'Teacher Education' particularly at the secondary level. The opinion that a graduate teacher is expected not only to acquire skills in 'teaching' but also an insight into the several processes of education has now been accepted by the modern educationists. The degree awarded at the end of the secondary training course is now called 'Bachelor of Education' instead of 'Bachelor of Teaching' in many universities. Many of the training colleges are now called the 'Colleges of Education' instead of training colleges.

Proposals of the NCERT for Teacher Education: The proposal of NCERT for Teacher Education, includes the following:-

1. Development of model textbooks, handbooks and other sources material on teacher education;
2. Organisation of in-service programmes for teacher educators;
3. Promotion of research in training Institutions;
4. Status studies of training Institutions.
5. One-year courses in work-experience and regional languages;
6. Correspondence courses for guidance counselors and career master: 
7. Summer Institutes etc.
8. Revision of curricula for teacher education;
9. Improvement of its evaluation practice;

1. Dr. J.S. Wallia, (2014). Contemporary Issues and Concerns in Secondary Education, Ahim Paul Publications, N.N11, Gopal Nagar, Jalandhar.
2. Gurmanjit Kaur Bhullar, (2008). Emerging Indian Education : Challenges and Trends, Modern Publications, Jalandhar.
3. Khushwinder Kaur Dhilon, Kamlesh Sharma & Raj Kumar Khanna, (2011). Contemporary Issues and Concerns in Secondary Education, Twenty First Century Publications, Patiala.
4. Lalta Prasad and Amit Gautam, (2014). Assurance of Quality Enhancement in Teacher Education, University News, Vol. 52, No. 5, February 03.09.2014.
5. Vinod B. Ukey, (2010). Role of Teacher Education, Edu. Tracks: Vol. 10, No.1- September 2010.
6. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/development-of-teacher-education-in-india-before-independencepptx/251823875