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| Micro History of “Breast Tax” and “Chipko Movement”: Historicizing the Unheard Echo of A Woman | |||||||
| Paper Id :
17815 Submission Date :
11/07/2023 Acceptance Date :
21/07/2023 Publication Date :
25/07/2023
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| Abstract | History, as an authentic ancient branch of knowledge, has been a debatable issue not only among the academia but layman. Multitudes of debatable perspectives pertinent to History are prevalent, nowadays. From the empirical branch of knowledge and Meta history to Macro history and Micro history, History as a branch of knowledge as well as socio-cultural and political agent in the society has stirred a human conscience and sense of history. As per one of the perspectives, History is a kind of story that people prefer to tell each other; and, history is always narrated from the perspective of the center or powerful voices. It is high time to explore the hi(story)of unheard voices of powerless social groups or individuals. Distinct from a case study, Micro history is closely associated with social or cultural history and explores the unheard echoes of the neglected or overlooked individuals or social groups. This paper analyzes two historical movements: “Chipko Movement” and “Breast Tax” in the context of the underrated contribution of two women – “Amrita Devi” and “Santu Nangeli”. The contribution of both the figures is recorded in a scattered manner through films, documentaries and articles. The paper discourses all the available sources regarding the aforesaid occurrences with a view to discuss the micro history of two unheard female voices. | ||||||
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| Keywords | History, Micro History, Breast Tax, Chipko Movement. | ||||||
| Introduction | History, a story of real or imaginary events oris a written
record of important events and their causes or isa branch of knowledge that
records and explains past events. According to Marriam Webster, history is a
chronological record of significant events that form the topics of
history.There are various trends prevalent in the field of Historical
narrations like Meta History, Macro History, New Historicism, Micro History
etc. Meta History is a part of the discipline of historiography. The term was
first mentioned in the book written by Hayden White named The Historical Imagination
in Nineteenth Century Europe published in the year 1973. Macrohistory is a type
of extensive history that examines several cultures across protracted time
periods. The literary theory of Newhistoricism postulates that text should be
examined and analysed for further understanding in the context of not only
author’s history but also that of critic’s history. New Historicism is based on
literary criticism by Stephen Greenblatt and Michel Foucault's philosophy. It
is impacted by both the time an author writes a book and the responses that
text receives. Microhistory is a branch of history that concentrates on a very
small unit of study, such as an occasion, a group of people, a community, or a
place. The inquiry on a tiny scale is what makes micro history unique. This
essay aims to shed light on microhistory from a female perspective. It aims to
demonstrate how courageously women can bring about social and political change
via their active participation. |
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| Aim of study | The objective of this paper is to examine the select past
occurrences adopting the global Micro Histocial approach with a view to
globalize the local impact of the mentioned past occurrences. |
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| Review of Literature | In
A Case for Global Microhistory (2020, Jon Mathieu observes the
astonishing rise of microhistory in 1980s and 1990s, which was later shifted to
global history due to globalization. Further, he postulates the breakdown of
globalizations into several ‘micro knowledge’ on one hand and on other the
classic genre – microhistory requires wide range of knowledge; in a way,
Mathieu justifies the need of a global microhistory that, he further supposes,
blurs the line of demarcation between big and small topic. Maxine Berg in his
research paper Introduction: Global Microhistory of the Local and the Globalobservers
that the deep contextualization is one of significant factor in the global
approach to microhistory. In a way, the microhistories ought to be studied
scrupulously to globalize the impact it created on local society. HaripriyaRangan
discusses the Chipko Movement in her article India’s Chipko Movement Changed
the World’s Vision in detail recording the contributions of several
activists and how it became significant as a grass-root movement. In her
article The breast tax that wasn’t: An infamous tax from Kerala was actually
a misnomer, Swati Gautam elucidates the historical interpretations of the
infamous breast tax from Kerala citing various historical intelligentsia. |
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| Main Text | Breast Tax The ‘ Breast tax’,
Mulakkaram in Malayalam was a ‘Head tax’ imposed on lower class women
specifically belonging to Nadar, Ezhava and other lower community in the
kingdom of Travancore now known as Kerala until 1869. The women belonging to
lower class were supposed not cover their upper body. It is believed that this
is how they wanted to create discrimination between upper class and lower class
women. It had more to do with class struggle which covered the dignity of a
woman. Similarly, lower caste men had to pay ‘Mustache tax’ known as Tala
Karam. Historian Manu Pillai addresses ‘Breast tax’ to be misnomer which had
nothing to do with breast. He also notes that covering breast was not a norm in
Kerala’s matrilineal society during Nangeli’s life span. Santu Nangeli is one
of the landmark figures when it comes to ‘Breast Tax’ movement. Santu Nangeli belonged to
Ezhava community who raised her voice against taxes collected from common
people. Santu Nageli and her husband were agricultural labourers.The
"Breast Tax" was one of the 110 different types of levies that the
Travancore rajas cruelly levied against the Dalit population at the time. In
the company of Brahmins, royalty, or any other higher caste, members of the
Ezhava or Nadar caste were required to dress modestly or go bare-chested.
Women's top attire had considerable symbolic significance as a statement of
social identification by the late 18th century. Santu Nangeli was acutely aware
of the injustice being perpetrated against her community since, by the end of
the day, there was hardly enough rice for them to eat. In those days,
parvarthiyar and his men used to visit houses for the collection of taxes.
People of lower class used to wrap rice in banana leaf and pay tax in this
form. Santu knew that she could not win against state brutality by any usual
tactics and thus one day when parvarthiyar and his men came to collect the tax,
she was ready with the sickle. She asked them to wait outside. She went inside;
with the sickle she cut both her breasts and presented them on banana leaf to
parvarthiyar. Her mutilated body was in severe pain and was facing a lot of
loss of blood. Before she bled to death, she witnessed horror and panic on
parvarthiyar’s face. She knew in that very moment that her sacrifice will not
go in vain. Nangeli’s protest sent shock waves throughout the state. As a
result, king of Travancore issued a proclamation revoking Mulakkaram out of the
fear of public agitation. The area she lived in was known as Mulachiparambu
(land of the breasted women). Nangeli’s protest is hardly mentioned in official
history. However, her great great grand daughter Leena retells her story with
pride. Her story draws inspiration to new generation. Still Dalit Movement
continues the struggle for an end to exploitation and the establishment of
social justice. Chipko Movement Original Chipko Andolan
was started in 18th Century by Bishnoi Community in Rajasthan. A group of
villagers led by Amrita Devi sacrificed their lives in order to protect trees. The Chipko Movement was a
non violent agitation done by women in 1973 aiming to protect and conserve
trees. It was a collective mobilization of women for the cause of preservation
of forest to maintain ecological balance. It originated in Chamoli District,
Uttar Pradesh and spread in other states of North India in no time. The name of
the movement ‘Chipko’ derives from the word ‘embrace’. The villagers,
especially women used to encircle the tree to save it to get cut. The
Modern Chipko Movement was sparked by changes Uttar Pradesh experienced during
the 1963 China Border Conflict. Many international businesses were drawn to the
country due to the need for infrastructure development, and they were looking
to expand in huge state forests. Villagers who heavily relied on it for both
food and fuel had a difficult time in 1970 due to extensive floods.
Deforestation continued in subsequent years for various reasons, with
environmentalists and social activists like Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sundarlal
Bahuguna, etc. participating. The Chipko Movement can essentially be
called women’s movement for both the reasons, first being initiated by Amrita
Devi and second because of active role and participation of women. Women, being
in charge of cultivation, livestock and children suffered most due to floods
and land slides which caused due to deforestation and urbanization. Khejri tree works as a
lifeline for camels, cattle and other animals in Thar Desert. It has religious
importance for Bishnoi Community in Rajasthan. Nearly 18 kms from Jodhpur
sets a small village named Khejarli where Amrita Devi lived with her three
daughters lived. On September 11, 1730 King’s men came to cut Khejri tree which
were to be used for the construction of one of the palaces of King of Jodhpur.
Amrita Devi explained to the king’s men that cutting Khejri Tree is against
Bishnoi Dharma but king’s men were not moved. Thus, Amrita Devi decided to hug
the tree and told them to cut the tree along with her. The king’s men
ruthlessly cut the tree through her body. Her three daughters though in utter
shock chose to follow the foot steps of her mother and met the same end. The
news of this incident spread like fire and Bishnois of 83 villages gathered at
Khejarli and held the council to decide that with every Khejri tree, one
Bishnoi volunteer would sacrifice his or her life. As a result of this
movement, 363 Bishnois from 49 villages became martyres that day. Khejarli's
very earth became soaked and blood-red. The monarch instantly gave his soldiers
orders to desist after learning the news. He apologized to the community and
provided an engraved copper plate preventing tree cutting near Bishnoi villages
for all time in order to recognize the bravery displayed by the Bishnoi people.
The Bishnoi people continue to aggressively defend their biodiversity today
since that protection is still in effect. In honour of Amrita Devi, a wax
figure of her was erected in the Jaipur museum. Both the historical
events are marked in past as occurrences, however, not recognised as remarkable
events which were powerful enough to change the decisions made by Royalties. In
history, there are many more sacrifices made by revolutionary people and have
been missed to be mentioned or are not found important enough to mention. The events which were
failed carve its place in History can be analyzed under the light of French
Philosopher Michael Foucault’s theory of Power and Knowledge. He begins with
exhibiting Knowledge and Power as a Discourse. Knowledge is always an exercise
of Power and Power is always a function of Knowledge. When presenting his
concept of power, Foucault says that power is anything that controls or directs
human behavior. Discipline and Punish was the official introduction of the
topic of power in Foucault's work. Lois McNay remarks: Foucault’s interest was
not directed at the expression of power in its most central and
institutionalized forms such as class relations rather, he was concerned to
examine how power relations of inequality and oppression are created and
maintained in more subtle and diffuse ways through ostensibly humane and freely
adopted social practices. (McNay 2) Power is conceptualized
by him as capillary flowing throughout the system like blood in capillaries of
our body. Power is productive and it produces identity and subjects. “Power
must be analyzed as something which circulates, or as something which only
functions in the form of a chain…power is employed and exercised through a
netlike organization…individuals are the vehicles of power, not its points of
application” (Foucault, Power/Knowledge 98). Further he explaines how
Power is exercised through mechanism of ‘Governmentality’. Governmentality
consists of two words: Government and Rationality. Both the historical events,
‘Chipko Movement’ and ‘Breast Tax’, there was not democratic power but there
certainly was power asserted by Royalties for the sake of fulfilling either
their personal needs of building Raj Mahel(in Chipko Movement) or filling their
Royal Pockets by applying headless taxes(Breast Tax). Peeping back into
history, one can come across many instances where government and rationality do
not go hand in hand, especially during the time of monarchy. Backward class,
oppressed entity (woman) and lower class has become prey to it. Foucault, in the same
theory gives three Conventional Models of Power, listing, The Sovereignty
Model, The Commodity Model and The Repressive Model. The first and second
models suggest who rules whom and how power is thoroughly material and
transferable. However, in his third model he mentions that Power is not
repressive, it is rather productive. In his book ‘The History of Sexuality’,
Foucault identifies Power with repression, restriction, with saying ‘No”. He
further mentions the significant aspect of power regarding its co-existence
with resistance as Foucault contends, “where there is power, there is
resistance, that power depends for its existence on the presence of a
multiplicity of points of resistance" (Foucault, The History of
Sexuality Vol. 1 92-93). The ‘Repressive Hypnosis’
implies that aim of state power is either to containment of desire or
containment of lawlessness. For instance, in chipko movement, Amrita Devi and
her three daughters hugged the tree expecting that the officials might step
back on humanitarian ground, however, they continued cutting the tree following
their Master’s instruction. So in order to fulfil their containment of desire,
cutting four humans into half did not mean anything less than lawlessness in
itself. With reference to the same idea, Foucault further gives the term
‘Biopower’ for such power which regulates life and not give threat of death and
orders regulate people.
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| Conclusion | To conclude, the concept that most piques interest is how
oppressed entities-women, playing such major role in changing powerful
decisions of Monarchy. Both Santu Nangeli and Amrita Devi, though being
Historical Figures’ voices remained unheard because of being women, being from
lower class and lower class of the society. Though their voices could not
create impact on any major part in History, echoes of the same will always be
heard whenever one revisits the past. |
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of California Press, 1987. Print. Mills, Sara. Michel Foucault. London:
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