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“Manipur is burning and bringing disrepute to the reputation of this great coun- try.” This recurring headlines in national and International media are causing deep concern in the minds of those policy makers who assiduously worked dur- ing the past decade to establish peace in the region through concerted develop- mental efforts. True, recent violence in Manipur is unfortunate, disgusting and extremely painful . The perpetrators of violence and crimes against humanity therein must be brought to justice without delay. Given the scale and magnitude of present conflict , we must ponder over the background and relaities of current Manipur crisis objectively.. The scale of vio- lence definitely smacks of some well thought out mischievious design to desta- bilize rapidly developing regions of North East.

The unabated ethnic strife and resultant violent clashes in Manipur have attracted attention of civil society and intelligentsia for long. Past seven decades after integration into Union of India have been quite turbulent for Manipur  in many ways. Not only this has caused irreparable social divide, the development process was also  hampered due to continued violence and economic blockades. The illegal infiltration and drug trafficking in the entire region also presented challenges before the security agencies. Despite promulgation pf AFSPA, Manipur remained disturbed and a challenge for all the stakeholders.

Brig. Sushil K sharma , in his paper  “ Ethnic Conflict and Harmonization : A study of Manipur” in Occasional papers, Vivekanand International Foundation  (June 2016) has elaborated the factors and challenges of ethnic conflict in Manipur. He dwells upon the socio economic contours of the conflict and has also compared this with the patterns of ethnic strife in countries like Nigeria and south Africa.

TarapotPhanjoubam, in his book “ Bleeding Manipur” ( HarAnand , New Delhi, 2003) has comprehensively looked into the social divide betweenvarious ethnic groups and has held government apathy too as responsible for continued conflict.

Kabui Gangmei in his “ Genesis of the Ethnoses of Manipur” in SajaobaNaorem ( Ed.) book –“ Manipur: past and present”, Mittal Publications, N.Delhi, 1995) has discussed the genesis and evolving circumstances of ethnic conflict with special reference to Kuki-Naga conflict.

Dena Lal in hi piece of paper “The Kuki Naga conflict : Juxtaposed in the colonial context “ in kailash Aggarwal ( Ed.) book –“ Dynamics of Identity and intergroup Relations in North East India”,IIAS, Shimla, 1999, has enumerated the colonial legacy of the ethnic strife in Manipur and traces the demand for seperate homeland for Kukis in the 20^th century colonial policy.

T.S.Gangte in “Struggle for Identity and Land among the Hill people of Manipur ( Kuki International Forum, 11August, 2007) has referred to issues pertaining to identity assertions and  sharing land rights with Nagas and Meiteis).

N. Kipgen in ‘politics of Ethnic conflict in Manipur” ( South Asia Research, Sage Journals, Vo;. 33, Issue !, Feb.28,2013) analyses the reason behinf Kuki Naga conflicts despite cessation agreement of 1997. The author points out indifference of the successive governments for not solving the chronic ethnic problems. Nani G Mhanta in his paper “ A Kashmir in the Making “ in India Today International ( Oct 1, 2012) too echoes the same sentiment and cautions against the externals factors that could lead to further deterioration  in the situation.

N.Kipgen& Arnab Roy Chowdhuri in their paper “ Contested State-Craft on the Frontiers of the Indian Nation: Hill-Valley divide and the Genealogy of Kuki Ethnic Nationalism in Manipur” in Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, vol.16,Issue 2, October 2016 have discussed in quite detail the hill valley divide which has accentuated in the present violent strife. They have specifically dealt with the issue of Kuki sub nationalist aspirations in the overall context of political insecurity. The demand for a sperate homeland for Kukis and its impact on the entire region have been discussed by Vibha Arora &N.Kipgen in ‘ Democratization in the Himalayas: Interests , Conflicts and Negotiations” , Routledge India, 2017. Sanjoy Hazarika in “ Strangers of the Mist: tales of War and Peace from India’s northEast” ( penguine Books, Delhi, 1995) had  discussed the ethnic strife in the entire region wherein he points out the ethnic divide and its causes in Manipur too.

Pushpita Das in her paper “The Unfolding Kuki-Metei conflict in Manipur” in IDSA-Manipur issue ( May 29, 2023) has pointed out the aggravated Kuki-Metei distrust in the context of Metei assertion on tribal status demand and its international security ramifications.

B. Meitei Rajkumar in “ Exploring Ethnic Conflict in Manipur” in L.M.singh (Ed.) –“ Conflict Transformation peace and ethnic Divide in India’s NorthEast ( Kamakhya Publishing House, Guwahati & Imphal , 2013) has tried to explain the factors causing intergroup distrust and external help to them. OinamBhagat in his paper ‘ Patterns of Ethnic conflict in North East : A study of Manipur” in Economic & Political Weekly , 38(21) May 2003 has also sought to analyse the patterns of Manipur conflict and reasons for not arriving at long lasting solutions.

 Ashutosh Varshney in "Ethnic Conflict and Civil Society : India and Beyond" in World Politics ,53(3) April 2001 has brought the role of civil society in addressing the issue of ethnic divide. In this context, The paper “ethnic conflicts in Manipur through NingolChakhouba- a Metei Familial Tradition- The Emerging role towards peacekeeping in Manipur “ by B.Meteirajkumar in Peace Practice research conference in 2013 is quite remarkable. 

Facts we must know about Manipur:

Let us first know some of the basic facts about Manipur .

Manipur, literally meaning “ Land of Jewels”, is located in North Eastern Part of India with Nagaland to its North, Mizoram to its south , Assam to its west. In east, Manipur shares 352 k.m. international border with Myanmar. Except a 10 k.m. stretch which is barbed ,this entire international border is porous and hilly lead- ing to frequent illegal incursions and arm, drugs smuggling. The current spate of violence must be seen in the overall context of this open border and consequent infiltration by insurgents from across the border.

Districtwise Political Map of Manipur

History of Manipur: Let us know the history of Manipur in brief. Manipur is also known historically as Kangleipak in traditional Meitei texts and legends. It has a long and rich history of Monarchies . The history of Manipur Meiteis is men- tioned in great detail in Puyas or Puwaris ( stories of Forefaters or Ancessestors) Hill tribes have their own legends .It was merely a Hill Tract Area of British Burma during British colonial period and when Burma was seperated from British India, Manipur chose not to go with Burma. Manipur Kingdom was incorporated in the Union of India on 15th October 1949 and was given the status of Union Territory in 1956. However, the legal merger of Manipur kingdom in Indian Union was dis- puted and refused by some ethnic insurgent groups with the help of external powers which resulted in armed insurgency for almost six decades thus leading to continued loss of human lives and a retarded development of the state. Be- tween 2009 and 2018 alone, Manipur reported more than 1000 deaths in violent insurgency and secessionism .

Manipur was granted full statehood under the Union of India in 1972. As per the last census records ( 2011) , it has a total population of 28.55 lakhs with almost 70%residing in rural areas. The demographic profile shows Manipur as multi ethnic society with Meiteis constituting 53% of total population ( Including Metei pangal Muslims), Nagas 24% and Kukis -Zomis( combined ethnic groups of Chins, Kukis, Mizos ) 16%. The official language is Manipuri in Meitei script which is also one of the languages mentioned under schedule VIII of the Indian constitution. The literacy rate is almost 77%.

The religious profile of Manipur has also been cited by many as a factor behind inter ethnic conflicts and discontent among a large group of traditional Meiteis. Presently ,Hindus and Christians are almost 41% each , Muslims and Sanamahi ( a traditional faith ) around 8% each. But it is the sharp decline of Hindus that has raised alarm among sections of Hindu Meiteis. Hindu population declined sharply from 62% in 1961 to 41.39% in 2011 while Christianity saw a correspond- ing steep rise from 19% in 1962 to 41.29% in 2011. Today, only indigenous Meiteis follow Vaishnav Hinduism , mainly concentrated in Imphal Valley and the districts of Bishnupur, Thoubal, Imphal west and East which constitute only 10% of the total area of Manipur. Almost entire hill tribes of the rest of the Ma- nipur have become christian thanks to colonial patronage to missionaries . This alarming change in religious demographic profile during the past five decades has caused discontent among Meitei groups . Feeling cornered and isolated, in- digenous Meiteis are demanding Scheduled Tribe status which was accepted by the Manipur High Court recently. But, this very High Court judgement resulted in a coordinated and well thought out violent reaction by rebellious hill Kuki insurgent groups who see in this judgement an encroachment upon their rights.

Factors leading to Ethnic Violence in Manipur.

Causes of ethnic conflict can broadly be divided into material based arguments ( Resources , strategic Issues etc.) , Non- material based explanations ( Ethnic Fear) and elite manipulation ( community charismatic leadership). Theorists who have analysed ethnic conflicts in terms of a security dilemma that mutual fears and suspicion toward other groups is a key explanatory factor for the outbreak and escalation of violence. Highlighting the emotional aspect of ethnic conflict, some observers also point out that the motivation to participate in or support to ethnic violence is inherent in human nature. However, the anthropological view has contested this primordialist explanation and has emphasized on the social con- struction of ethnic differences and the process of “ Ethnic Othering” related to political mobilization along ethnic lines. usually, oerceived economic disparity, competitive use of scarce resources , lack of adequate livelihood opportunities, perceived threat to cultural spaces and exclusion from the fruits of development are some of the key factors behind perpetual sub national or ethnic conflicts. We have to analyse the current Manipur scenario in the overall context of these theoretical constructs . Thus armed insurgencies in Manipur, like elsewhere , em- anates from the funding sources in poppy fields and spread its tentacles through ethno-identity grievances of Kukis, Meiteis and Nagas.

Given the above mentioned factors of ethnic clashes and consequent rivalry , ethnic conflict and violence has a long history in post independent Manipur. Some of the main factors responsible for the perpetual violent conflict between different ethnic groups (Chiefly Meiteis, kukis and Nagas ) and especially the current conflict can be explained clearly in the following points.-

1. Territorial dominance of Manipur by Kuki-Zomi tribes and resultant dis- contentment among Meiteis . It is a fact that majority Meiteis control only 10% of the Manipur territory ( Imphal Valley) while minority Kukis control the rest of the land.

The following map shows the large tract of Kuki dominated area and upper areas of Naga dominance while valley of Imphal lies trapped in between .

2. Land reforms act of Manipur stipulates that Meiteis cannot buy and settle in the land of tribal dominated hill areas except with the permission of the concerned hill council authority. But , there is no such restriction for hill Kuki zomi tribals in settling in Meitei dominated valley. There has been a general unrest among Meitei groups because of this perceived discrimina- tion while tribal Kukis complain of increased encroachement of their land & area through Forest Laws and in the name of driving away of infiltrators.

3. State Government clampdown on infiltrators and illegal settlers , immi- grants from Myanmar , illegal Poppy cultivation and drug smuggling . Chief Minister , while justifying a drive against this, called for the action against “ Drug Lords” referring to Poppy culgtivatorts in the hills which Kukis per- ceived as branding them all.

4. To check the illegal encroachments and poppy cultivation therein, the state government stated revenue and forest surveys in the Churachandpur Khoupum protected Forests which is predominantly Kuki area. So, on 21st February 2023, encroachers of K. songjang village Churachandpur were evicted, earlier in 2022 , 33 new settlements in Churachandpur and Noney districts were derecognized as villages due to forest encroachments. When a ruling party Kuki MLA Paolienlal Haokip protested against what he called uncalled for selective forest surveys citing the 1927 Forest Act , the union Minister Bhupendra Yadav endorsed the state government drive clarifying that after the 42nd amendment of the constitution ,forest was in concurrent list and hence states owned the protected forests . On April 11 2023, two houses in Langol Reserve forests were demolished , leading to further Kuki protests. This incident was precursor to later protest rallies and May 3 and aftermath.

Kuki Inpi Manipur ( KIM) , the apex body of the kukis in Manipur alleged that the BJP state government was acting against the hill tribes for oppos- ing it politically.

5. on March 10 this year, mass protest rallies were held in the kuki domi- nated hill districts. As a measure of retaliation against the continued de- stabilizing activities , the state government on March 11 withdrew from the tripartite suspension of Operations ( Ceasfire agreement) with two main armed tribal groups- Kuki National Army and Zomi Revolutionary Army.

6. Long & porous international border and unstoppable illegal infiltration that has changed demography in many places. while Meiteis demand ex- pulsion of such elements from Myanamar as also the provision of NRC like Assam. Kukis and other tribals complain of harassment on this issue. Both Meiteis and Kukis have held several protest rallies in Manipur and the na- tional capital.

7. Due to above mentioned factors , rapidly changing religious profile of the state. majority of Meiteis are hindus and they fear their religious exist- ence. The rise of BJP in the state can also be attributed to this factor. BJP has raised this Metei concern at different forums . On the other hand, the increased hindu centric policies of the government and RSS network has caused much discomfort among the tribal Kukis who are largely Christians. The church activities and their proselytizing drives have also widened the gap between Meiteis and Kukis.

8. External powers are also fuelling the crisis by supporting the secessionist insurgent tribal groups. The recent statements of Ex Army Chief General Narwane is a significant point in this regard . The violent anti India insur- gent groups are getting arms and resources from across the border. This factor of external conspiracy is quite substantial in view of increased focus on development of North Eastern states under the Modi regime which saw massive investments in this area in infrastructure projects such as Railways ( Manipur has already come on the railway map with Jiribam as a Railhead and Jiribam – Imphal Rail Network is fast approaching comple- tion) Roads , Electricity Hydel projects . Also, the Act East policy of the Modi regime is fast involved in building international connectivity projects such as Kaladan Multi Modal Transit Transport project, Trilateral Highway Project ( India-Myanmar-Thailand- Asian Highway) and Rhi – Tiddim Road project. All this has probably led to a combined conspiracy by external and internal anti India agencies to gang up and fuel the insurgency and violence in Manipur. The current violence is probably an effort to impede this process of development of the region.

Here, the large scale arms supply to the insurgents from across the border cannot be overlooked in this context as also the mass looting of arms and ammunition from the security forces in Post May 3 incidents in the state.

9. The demand of Meiteis for Scheduled Tribe status to end the perceived discrimination. The Scheduled Tribes Demand Committee of Manipur has been demanding since 2012 Scheduled Tribe status for Meiteis Under ar- ticle 342(1) of the Indian Constitution to preserve their cultural heritage and land of forefathers against illegal immigrant settlers and encroachers. Thus, Manipur High Court judgment accepted their demand which proved to be the immediate spark causing the current spate of violence in the state though Supreme Court has stayed that order. Kukis see this as a step to encroach their rights.

10. The demand for Nagalim or Greater Nagaland by various Naga groups including the most armed group of NSCI-IM which includes two hill dis- tricts of Ukhrul and Senapati has led to endless Naga-Kuki violent conflict and many massacres including the infamous kuki massacre of 1993 by NSCIN-IM. Though this Naga-Kuki conflict has subsided to a considerable extent ever since Union of India enetered into a ceasfire truce with NSCI- IM in 1997, the divide between these two groups have not ended .

All the above mentioned factors form the background in which present phase of violent ethnic clashes broke out on May 3 2023.

A Brief History of Armed insurgency and Unending ethnic conflict in Mani- pur:-

The ethnic conflict and consequent armed insurgency has long history in Ma- nipur. Its origins can be traced in the following three dynamics-

First, Refusal to accept the merger of Manipur Kingdom into the Indian union in 1949 . This was mainly by the rebel Meitei groups.

second, the refusal to accept the Meitei dominated state government. We must remember that though Kuki – Zomi hill tribes control almost 90% of the state territory , Meiteis form the majority in population thus leading to large share in 60 member state Legislative assembly. 40 seats are Meitei dominated while only 20 are Kuki- Zomi dominated. So, many see the current phase of Kuki- Meiti clashes from the prism of political dominance of Meiteis and re- sentmentment over this doninance by chin kuki tribes.

Thirdly, a longstanding Naga-Kuki conflict resulting from the demand of Greater Nagaland or Nagalim. The decades of 80s and 90s saw the most blood drenching conflict between these two hill tribes.

Also,there have been sporadic cases of violent clashes between Meiteis and Meitei Pangals ( Muslims) ,In 1993, there were large scale violence between this inter Meitei , inter -faith clashes.

Active Armed Insurgent groups of Manipur:

As stated above, the existence of many ethnic groups and their Identity driven demands and threefold nature of ethnic strife in Manipur produced many armed insurgent groups.

in 1964,United National Liberation Front ( UNLF) was formed by those dis- gruntled and rebellious elements who considered the accession to India as ‘ forced’ and hence took to armed insurgency challenging the Indian sover- eignty in Manipur. Even today, this UNLF is the largest umbrella organization of Valley based insurgent groups though it has weakened considerably in the changed political circumstances. This group was mainly dominated by Valley based Meiteis. Many such insurgent groups mushroomed during the past six decades. One significant insurgent group Peoples Revolutionary party of Kangleipak

( PREPAK) was formed in the year 1977 its militant wing Peoples Liberation army in 1978. In 1980, Kangleipak Communist party (KCP) was established with tacit support from China. All these insurgent groups continued their armed rebellion fighting the Indian security forces as also frequent road blockades, extortions and indirectly controlling the overall electoral politics of different political parties. These groups mainly operated in Meitei domi- nated Valley districts.

As a result of deteriorating situation in the state, whole of Manipur was de- clared Disturbed Area and Armed Forces Special powers Act ( AFSPA- Enacted by Government of India in 1958 to give decisive powers to the forces to contain the violent insurgency in North East ) was enforced in 1980. However, after a long drawn demand and movement against AFSPA ( one longest 16 years hunger Strike by activist Irom Chanu sharmila included) , the government of India , as of July 2023, lifted this from 19 Police station areas spread over 7 districts of Manipur.

Naga Tribes dominate two districts of Senapati & Ukhrul and are also share the space with Chin-Kuki tribes in other hill districts. The rise of anti India Naga groups in Nagaland expanded to these Naga dominated areas of Mani- pur mainly under the umbrella of Nationalist Socialist council of Nagaland ( Issiac-Muivah-IM) , the dreaded armed insurgent group . This group chal- lenged the Indian sovereignty and gradually shifted their demand to Nagalim or greater Nagaland consisting of some areas of Manipur too which was ve- hemently resented and contested by rival Kuki groups. Post 1997, NSCN9IM) entered into ceasfire and negotiations with the government of India thus re- ducing the intensity of Naga Kuki violence though differences still persists.

The third dimension of Manipur Insurgent groups is mainly ethnic Kuki-Chin- Zomi rebellion. These hill based tribes have large number of sub tribal de- nominations . The chin-Kuki category consists of Gangte,Hmar, Paite, Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou, Aimol, Chiru, Koirang,Kom, Anal, Chothe, Lamgang, Koirao, Thangal, Moyon, and Moysong sub tribal groups with mutual similarities yet distinct cultural practices. Among these, Paite, Zou, Gangte, Vaiphei have started identifying themselves as Zomi and distancing themselves from main- stream Chin-Kuki ethnic tribes. Because of this diversity, there are around 30 identifiable Kuki-Zomi insurgent groups operating in various hill districts and competing for an imagined Sovereign Kukiland comrising of Kuki dominated areas of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar . Some groups have diluted their demands to autonomous district councils. Most important of these Kuki in- surgent groups are Kuki National Organization(KNO) and its military wing Kuki National Army (KNA). out of these 30 Kuki groups, 25 entered into the Tripar- tite ceasefire agreement , SoO ( Suspension of Operations )with State and Union government in 2005. In March this year, the Sate government with- drew from this SoO agreement as a retaliation to mass protest rallies against the state government in hill districts . Of late,these kuki groups have started demanding an Autonomous Kukiland Territorial Council on the lines of Bodo- land Council in Assam.

The present Ethnic Meitei- Kuki conflict:

On 14th 0f April 2023, acting on a petition by Meitei Tribe Union , The Mani- pur High court directed the state government to send a recommendation to the union government to give Scheduled Tribe status to the Meitei commu- nity ( Though, this high court decision was found factually incorrect and stayed by the Supreme Court of India later) . This was the immediate provo- cation which led to the reignition of the longstanding ethnic spark between Meiteis and Kukis. To protest the high court decision on ST status for Meiteis, a total shutdown was declared by tribal groups on 28th April 2023 and later on 3rd of May 2023, under the banner of All Tribal students Union manipur, a “ Solidarity March “ was organised in hill districts. This March resulted in spo- radic incidents of ethnic violence in Kuki dominated Churachandpur and Meitei dominated Bishnupur districts. This was followed by large scale ethnic clashes , killings, crime against women, burning of houses , looting of arms and ammunition from govt security personnel and depots which, though sub- sided by August 2023, but still continues. There was Internet shutdown . In July, the horrifying and shameful visuals of Naked women parade shook the conscience of the nation and even Prime Minister expressed deep shock and anger over the crimes against women and assured strict action. The present phase of Manipur violence has resulted in more than 180 deaths and dis- placement of more than 60000 people across districts.

Many observers do feel that the Manipur Violence has previous horrifying history and what is happening in 2023 is just an extension of what was al- lowed to happen in the state and the entire North eastern region post Inde- pendence. Between 2009 and 2019, Manipur alone reported more than thousand insurgency related human losses. Many experts have opined that the current spurt in ethnic violence in the state and the region must be seen in a larger context of conspiracies by external elements inimical to the stabil- ity and security of an otherwise resurgent part of India. Even the Ex army Chief General Narwane recently echoed this view.

The Way Ahead:

The state government , after a somewhat delayed response in the initial days of unrest and Violence, pulled its socks when Union Government and the supreme court of India directed it to act swiftly and decisively. Post May 3 2023, central security forces were deployed in large numbers, Complaints and FIRs registered, and after the June visit of the state by union Home Minister Shri Amit Shah, a buffer zone was created between Kuki and Meitei dominated areas and Inter community reconciliation and peace process was started.

The State requires a multi pronged strategy to normalise the situation and quell the recurrence of ethnic violence in the valley as well as in the hills. The chal- lenges and action thereupon must include –

1. Restoration of rule of law and public order

2. Registering complaints and FIRs in each cases of violence

3. Crime against women to be looked into with priority and without any de- lay.

4. Recovery of looted arms and ammunition from the insurgents

5. Setting up of and maintaining of Relief camps for displaced people in ad- equate numbers with proper security. There were cases of killings inside relief camps.

6. establishing Peace and reconciliation and augmenting the process of in- ter community and inter groups dialogue for a long term reconciliation .

7. Reducing the Trust Deficit between the valley and hill people so as to maintain the territorial integrity of the state as demanded by many im- portant personalities from the state .

8. Time bound Judicial Probe of the violence and action thereupon.

9. Citizen centric inter community dialogues need to be encouraged.

10. Curbing the incessant influx of illegal immigrants from Myanmar.

11. Continued clampdown on illegal poppy farming and removing the fear among the hill tribes .

12. Looking into the demands of Meitei community for ST status under the overall guidelines of Lokur Committee (1965), Bhuria Commission ( 2002- 04) and High power Committee under Virginius Xaxa ( 2013) and then present the case before the Supreme court . The supreme court decision will naturally be binding to all concerned.

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