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Dalit women form an integral part of the society however, despite India's focus on equality, millions of Dalit women (16.6% of population) still face marginalization. Examining the effectiveness of historical and recent initiatives for their social and cultural upliftment forms the heart of this study.Despite India's cultural reverence for women and its global achievements, Dalit women, comprising 16.6% of the population, endure a harsh reality of marginalization (Ghosh & Ghosh, 1997). Their struggles transcend poverty and education, rooted in the ‘triple burden’ of caste, class, and gender (Grey, 2005). Excluded from religion and education, relegated to menial tasks (Ghose, 2003), they face exploitation not just from the upper classes but also from the state (Mandal, 2010).Gender-based violence, employment hurdles, and limited access to water and sanitation plague their lives (Fatima, 2008; Rao, 2023). Even basic necessities like water become tools of exclusion, causing health issues and school dropouts (Rao, 2023). Over a million Dalit women engage in the hazardous and underpaid work of manual scavenging (Johns, 2012).This study delves into the literature review on the journey of Dalit women's social and cultural status over the past three decades. It examines following key areas:

1. Violence

2. Working conditions

3. Education

4. Political participation

5. Environment

6. Empowerment

By analyzing these themes, this study aims to understand the progress made, remaining gaps, and cultural traditions that both empower and marginalize Dalit women. Ultimately, it seeks to illuminate their resilience and pave the way for further advancements in their journey towards equality and well-being.

Violence against Dalit women

The discourse surrounding violence against Dalit women reflects an evolving comprehension of its roots, manifestations, and potential resolutions. Dalit women endure severe brutality inflicted by upper-caste figures including landlords, moneylenders, local officials, and law enforcement, whether in the context of agrarian movements or in their everyday lives (Meera, 1979). Plagued by substantial debts, they often toil in the fields of these figures, subjected to unpaid and indefinite labor and, in some instances, coerced into providing sexual favors as a means of debt repayment. This exploitation is uniquely entrenched within the caste, religious, and political structures governing land relations (Mandal, 2004).

The spectrum of violence faced by Dalit women encompasses physical assault, verbal abuse, sexual harassment, rape, sexual exploitation, forced prostitution, abduction, incarceration, and medical neglect, alongside domestic abuses like female foeticide, infanticide, child sexual abuse, and intimate partner violence (Mangubhai& Lee, 2012). Despite higher rates of violence reported among scheduled caste women compared to others, domestic violence against Dalit women remains inadequately addressed (Sujatha, 2014).Within marital homes, Dalit women encounter various forms of exploitation and abuse, perpetuating cycles of suffering and marginalization (Senapati, 2021). Postcolonial feminist critiques highlight the influence of India's sexual violence discourses on Dalit rape victims, including concepts of honor, shame, and marital status (Mangat, 2022).

To safeguard Dalit women from multiple victimizations, comprehensive measures are imperative. A protective approach should dismantle the intersecting oppressions of caste, patriarchy, and bureaucracy, while affirmative measures must ensure robust welfare provision post-victimization through effective administration, judiciary, and welfare services (Kumar, 2014). Implementation and oversight of existing policies, alongside the removal of barriers hindering their execution, are crucial steps in this endeavor. Table – 1 represents list of papers on this subject.

Table - 1

S.No	Year	Research Topic
1	1979	Prisoners of inequality sexual abuse of Dalit women (Meera, V.)
2	2004	ATROCITIES ON THE DALIT WOMEN IN INDIA (Mandal, B. C.)
3	2012	Dalit women speak out: Caste, class and gender violence in India(SJ, A. I., Mangubhai, J. P., & Lee, J. G)
4	2014	Redefining domestic violence: Experiences of Dalit women (Sujatha, D.)
5	2014	Violence against Dalit Woman and Constitutional Protection: An analysis. (Kumar, S.)
6	2015	Marriage, violence, and choice: Understanding Dalit women’s agency in rural Tamil Nadu (Rao, N.)
7	2015	Depicting the Plight of Dalit Women: Caste, Gender and Social Violence. (MESSAFEUR, F. Z.)
8	2019	Social dominance orientation and sexual violence against Dalit women in India. (Minchekar, V.)
9	2021	Sexual violence against Dalit women: An analytical study of intersectionality of gender, caste, and class in India (Kumar, A)
10	2021	Analyzing the Atrocities on the Marginalized Dalit Women: A Study of Caste-Gender Interplay in Dalit Women’s Autobiographies (Senapati, S)
11	2022	Exploring the Barbaric Practice of Targeted Witch Hunt of Dalit Women: Is India in Dire Need of Special Laws?  (Mandal, A.)
12	2022	Sexual Violence Against Dalit Women in India: Navigating Discourses of Honour, Shame and Marriage  (Mangat, S.)

Working condition of Dalit women

Ghosh and Ghosh (1997) assert in their book 'Dalit Women' that economic deprivation compels Dalit women to undertake laborious tasks typically reserved for men, often without fair compensation. These tasks include working in paddy fields, construction sites, maternity care, corpse disposal, and entertainment roles like dancing as dom women. Despite their diverse contributions, Dalit women face marginalization and stigma, relegated to low-paying daily wage jobs due to poverty and illiteracy, and subjected to humiliation, beating, and torture if they demand better pay or resist orders (Mahey, 2003). Globalization exacerbates their plight, especially for those not near Special Economic Zones, with the transformation of agriculture into industries like floriculture and horticulture. Dalit women and girls engage in flower picking for meager wages, exposing them to health risks from agrochemicals, with adverse effects including excessive discharge and tumors (Fatima, 2008).

Dalits, including Dalit women, are categorized into various low-paying occupations, with around three-quarters working in agriculture, yet over forty million are trapped in bonded labor. This leaves Dalit families struggling to afford basic needs like education and healthcare, perpetuating cycles of poverty and illiteracy (Tayyab, 2015). However, there is a growing Dalit middle class that challenges historical exclusion and advocates for fair benefits from globalization, displaying resilience and agency within societal structures (Pai, 2015). Kumar (2020) emphasizes the continued performance of menial household tasks by Dalit women in rural India, underscoring their transformative journey from submission to resistance. This comprehensive review highlights the evolving challenges and triumphs of Dalit women in the context of their working conditions and societal positions.Table – 2 represents list of papers on this subject.

Table - 2

S.No	Year	Research Topic
1	1997	Dalit women (Ghosh, G. K., & Ghosh, S.)
2	2003	The status of Dalit women in India’s caste based system (Mahey, S.)
3	2008	Facing despair Struggles and Challenges of Dalit Women. (Fatima, B)
4	2015	Dalit Entrepreneurs, Globalisation and the Supplier Diversity Experiment in Madhya Pradesh (Pai, S)
5	2015	Positions of Dalits in Indian Social System (Tayyab, M. A.)
6	2020	Position of dalit women in rural India (Kumar, A.)

Level of educationof Dalit Women

Discrimination against women in India spans from female infanticide to dowry deaths, rape, and indecent portrayal, showcasing a multifaceted challenge (Nambissan, 1996). Education emerges as a pivotal solution to rectify the preservation of women's rights, yet the educational lag in Dalit communities is often linked to poverty and illiteracy at home (Nambissan, 1996). The formal educational system for Dalit pupils faces issues such as inadequate infrastructure and pedagogic support, shaping their learning experiences significantly (Verma, 2000).Caste plays a dominant role in shaping the educational landscape in India, where lower-caste students encounter discrimination both academically and socially (Kapoor, 2008). Dalit students face discriminatory practices in schools, including being prohibited from using common facilities due to fears of contamination (Nambissan, 2009). The curriculum lacks representation of Dalit history, perpetuating a cycle of marginalization (Nambissan, 2009). Discrimination continues into higher education, where Dalit students face tangible and intangible forms of social exclusion (Neelakandan&Patil, 2012).The educational status of Dalit women also reflects broader societal challenges, influencing perspectives on domestic work, marriage, and sexuality (Paik, 2014). Despite these challenges, education remains a crucial empowerment tool for marginalized groups, offering a path to break free from poverty and foster community development (Churiyana, 2017).In the contemporary era, education is recognized as a fundamental tool for personal development and societal progress, encompassing various dimensions of growth and addressing issues of welfare, freedom, and equal opportunity (Churiyana, 2017). Empowering the less privileged through education is essential to level the employment playing field and promote inclusive societal development. Table – 3 represents list of papers on this subject.

Table - 3

S.No	Year	Research Topic
1	1996	Equity in education? Schooling of Dalit children in India (Nambissan, G. B.)
2	2000	Educational Deprivation of Women and Dalits in South Asia (Verma, N. M. P)
3	2008	Caste, Dalits and education in contemporary India (Kapoor, D)
4	2012	Complexities of inclusion and exclusion: Dalit students and higher education in India (Neelakandan, S. M., &Patil, S. M)
5	2014	Dalit women's education in modern India: double discrimination (Paik, S. (2014). )
6	2017	Educational Status of Dalit Women in India-Changes and Challenges (Churiyana, P. B)

Political participationof Dalit Women

Sociopolitical development (SPD) expands upon notions of empowerment and social change within the realm of community psychology, encompassing concepts such as oppression, liberation, critical consciousness, and culture (Watts, Williams, &Jagers, 2003). SPD entails individuals acquiring knowledge, analytical skills, emotional faculties, and the capacity for political and social action to interpret and resist oppression, stressing the importance of envisioning liberation as an alternative to oppressive conditions. However, these crucial concepts have been inadequately emphasized in the social change literature of U.S. community psychology (Watts et al., 2003).

Regarding women's participation in politics, Chhibber (2003) asserts that it is not solely dependent on attitude but also on the lack of exposure. Ciotti (2006) delves into the participation of women party activists within Dalit politics, exploring the potential for feminist politics within spaces dominated by masculine powers and caste identity-driven politicians, along with the challenges faced by women in establishing a political career.Malik (2011) investigates the motivating factors driving Dalit women's engagement in politics and the socio-economic factors influencing their political participation, focusing on their reasons for entering village politics and candidacy, strategies employed to garner support, concerns related to safety and security, and pathways to entering panchayats. However, the political space allocated to Dalit Women Elected Representatives (DWERs) in Panchayati Raj Institutions remains constrained and limited (Malik &Shrivastava, 2011).

Recent years have witnessed the emergence of numerous resistance movements led by Dalit feminist women in India, accompanied by a growing body of literature by Dalit feminist writers (Teltumde, 2017). Bharti (2017) attempts to outline the significance of moral self within the Dalit framework, emphasizing the inherently moral vision of Dalit politics. Furthermore, Haokip and Umarani (2018) highlight that a significant number of scheduled caste (Dalit) individuals have secured positions in panchayats, with nearly half a million elected representatives across three tiers in each round of elections, of which approximately 40% are women from scheduled castes.Despite the decentralization process granting representation to Dalits in panchayats, various challenges persist, hindering meaningful participation. These challenges include financial dependence, patriarchal opposition, bureaucratic dominance, feudal values, limited education, reluctance from state-level politicians, administrative corruption, legal complexities, increased atrocities, violence against Dalit representatives, misuse of no-confidence motions, problems with mandatory seat rotation, and discrimination against elected Dalit panchayat presidents. These obstacles obstruct the political empowerment of marginalized communities. Effective implementation of reservation policies is crucial, necessitating stringent action against inhumane attacks on Dalit representatives to uphold the spirit of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act and activate reservations for SC Women. Thirupati (2021) emphasizes the need for central and state governments to decentralize power for policy effectiveness.Table – 4 represents list of papers on this subject.

Table - 4

S.No	Year	Research Topic
1	2003	Sociopolitical development (Watts, R. J., Williams, N. C., &Jagers, R. J.)
2	2004	Dalit question and political response (Pai, S.)
3	2005	Socio-economic base of political dynamics in Madhya Pradesh (Gupta, S)
4	2006	At the margins of feminist politics? A comparative analysis of women in Dalit politics and Hindu Right organisations in northern India (Ciotti, M.)
5	2011	Political Participation of Dalit Women in Pri‐S: Challenges and Response (Malik, B. B.)
6	2011	Understanding the Participation of Dalit Women Elected Representatives in Panchayats: A Study of Ghazipur and MAU Districts of Uttar Pradesh (Malik, B. B., &Shrivastava, J.)
7	2017	Dalits, dalit women, and the Indian State (Teltumde, A.)
8	2017	Understanding the Dalit Self: Politics and world view (Bharti, M.)
9	2018	Socio-political empowerment of dalits through Panchayati Raj: Experience from India (Haokip, S., &Umarani,)
10	2021	From Reservation to Participation: Issues and Challenges of Dalit Representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions. (Thirupathi, L)

Environment and Dalit Women

The systematic literature review delves into the historical narrative of Dalit women's experiences, with a focus on their cultural practices intertwined with environmental sustainability. Environmental sociology, as elucidated by Catton Jr and Dunlap (1978), examines the intricate relationship between societies and their natural environments to identify environmental issues and propose appropriate solutions.

Kumar and Mishra (2022) observe that while mainstream environmental movements in India address ecological concerns affecting marginalized groups like Dalit women, certain movements such as 'New Traditionalism,' Sulabh International (1970), the Chipko Movement (1973), Ralegan Siddhi village (1975), and the Narmada BachaoAndolan (1985) tend to overlook the specific ecological challenges faced by Dalits. Scholars like Gadgil and Guha underscore the media's neglect of Dalits' environmental contributions, labeling them 'invisible environmentalists.' Additionally, mainstream environmental movements and discourses often fail to recognize the significant role Dalits played in the 2014 Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission), despite facing ecological crises such as limited resource access and prohibitions.

Dalit environmental perspectives, expressed through various literary forms, offer a unique spectrum of environmentalism for broader dissemination. Integrating Dalit insights on ecological vulnerability, shaped by their socioeconomic experiences, is crucial for addressing global ecological crises. Prasad (2022) emphasizes the need to incorporate Dalit perspectives into Indian environmental discourse, recognizing their capacity to formulate effective responses to environmental degradation and climate change.Table – 5 represents list of papers on this subject.

Table - 5

S.No	Year	Research Topic
1	1978	Environmental sociology: A new paradigm (Catton Jr, W. R., & Dunlap, R. E.)
2	2022	Environmental casteism and the democratisation of natural resources: Reimagining Dalit testimonies (Kumar, V., & Mishra, B.)
3	2022	Towards Dalit Ecologies (Prasad, I.)

Empowerment of Dalit Women

Rege (1998) discusses the emergence of autonomous Dalit women organizations in the 1990s, which posed theoretical and political challenges to upper castes and patriarchal norms, aiming to carve out a distinct identity and standpoint (Chattopadhyay, 2003). Devi (2006) conducts a study on Dalit women, highlighting the role of Dr. B.R Ambedkar in their empowerment and socio-cultural evolution, attributing contemporary rights to his visionary leadership. Despite political hurdles, Ambedkar's legacy continues to guide the empowerment of this historically marginalized group, with comprehensive strategies addressing various facets of their lives (Kumar, 2009).

The intersectionality of caste, gender, and class shapes the distinct experiences of Dalit women, setting them apart from women of general castes (Kumar, 2009). They face structural discrimination, perform different occupations, and endure societal prejudice and contempt, often manifested through atrocities committed by upper castes (Kumar, 2009). However, recent years have seen a convergence of forces: the awakening of women and a commitment to local democracy (Behera, 2011). Elected women representatives at the grassroots level are not only beneficiaries but also key agents of change, challenging traditional gender roles and addressing vital issues like health and education (Behera, 2011).

GarimaAbhiyan collaborates with activists to empower Dalit women and children, fostering critical thinking and advocacy against manual scavenging (Schauman, 2012). Notably, scholarly attention has shifted towards understanding the unique struggles of Dalit women, exploring themes of patriarchy, caste prejudice, and education (Paik, 2016). Their empowerment hinges on addressing personal security, education, socio-economic development, and social justice (Sagar& Bhargava, 2017). The 73rd Constitutional Amendment of 1993 reserves seats for Dalit women in rural representative bodies, enhancing their participation in local governance (Vyshali, 2021).Table – 6 represents list of papers on this subject.Furthermore, autobiographies serve as a powerful tool for Dalit women writers to voice their resistance against caste-based oppression and gender discrimination, challenging the centuries-old chains of slavery (Muley, 2022). Through their narratives, they demand equal treatment, honor, and respect, inspiring a new path for oppressed women worldwide (Muley, 2022). To fully grasp the realities faced by Dalit women, a comprehensive analysis of caste, class, and gender dynamics is essential (Sagar& Bhargava, 2017). Ultimately, their empowerment lies in integrating political, cultural, and social histories into their narratives, contributing to inclusive and transformative politics in India (Paik, 2016).

Table - 6

S.No	Year	Research Topic
1	1998	Dalit women talk differently: A critique of'difference'and towards a Dalit feminist standpoint position ( Rege, S)
2	2003	Dalit Women ask for Human Rights ( Chattopadhyay, M.)
3	2006	An Analytical Study On Dalit Women And Contribution Of Dr. BR Ambedkar To Their Empowerment ( Devi, V. K)
4	2009	Locating Dalit women in the Indian caste system, media and women's movement. ( Kumar, V.)
5	2011	Dalit Women's Political Empowerment Through Panchayati Raj System in India. ( Behera, B)
6	2012	From Slavery to Dignity: How critical thinking and empowerment among Dalit women working with manual scavenging is implemented (Schauman, J.)
7	2012	Dalit Women in Modern India: Beyond the Standpoint Theory and Above the Women’s Study Narratives ( Oza, P)
8	2016	The rise of new Dalit women in Indian historiography ( Paik, S)
9	2017	Towards Empowerment of Dalit Women–A Brief Outline ( Ahammad, M. R.)
10	2017	Dalit women in India: Crafting narratives of success ( Sagar, S., & Bhargava, V.)
11	2017	Domestic violence and empowerment: A national study of scheduled caste women in India (Khandare, L. P)
12	2018	Socio-political empowerment of dalits through Panchayati Raj: Experience from India ( Haokip, S., &Umarani, )
13	2021	Political Empowerment of Dalit Women: Issues and Challenges ( Vyshali, U)
14	2021	Status of Dalit Women: A Human Rights Perspective ( Jena, D. K.)
15	2022	Dalit women’s autobiographies: A protest of Dalit woman against cast, class and gender discrimination ( Muley, A. A.)

The study focuses on past three decades viz. 1991 to 2001, 2001 to 2011 and 2011 till date. These time durations have been chosen as census has been carried out in 1991, 2001 and 2011 and in these years’ latest information regarding various aspects of population is collected and updated to the public. After 2011 no census has been carried out till date. Some papers before 1991 have also been reviewed due to their key significant contributions. Included studies are those which speak about the central themes chosen for study. Exclusion criteria is applied based on the relevance of the content to the central theme and the rigor of the research methodologies employed.Some papers before past three decades have also been included for methodological rigor and their significant key contributions. A total of 139 articles were reviewed. Out of them 52 articles were then classified and arranged chronologically based on central themes viz. violence, working condition, level of education, political participation, environment sustainability and Dalit cultural practices and Dalit cultural traditions which empower them or marginalize them. The systematic study of these articles helped to find the key trends in the plight of Dalit women on the selected themes. Finally, a picture of overall status of Dalit women is derived focusing on their social and cultural status.

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