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Intermarriages appear to be modern and are of recent origin to our perception, but they have been in existence since ancient times; albeit endogamous marriages have been considered as more acceptable. Marriage decides one’s membership in group. Intermarriage as a concept used here is broader and inclusive subsuming under it intercaste, interreligious and other forms of inter marriages. With the intensification of the processes of social change in the forms of westernization, modernization and globalization, people’s perception and beliefs about marriages have undergone changes which manifested in the form of intermarriages. Studies have identified the role of variables in influencing intermarriages such as education, age, gender, location of caste in hierarchy, employment, class status-economic condition, rural-urban factors, particularly among women. The present paper is an attempt to understand the perception and perspectives of intermarried couple about intermarriages. Objective of this paper is twofold:

1.     to examine the perceptions of intermarried couple about intermarriages and

2.     to explore whether intermarried couple and their children are able to transcend the identities of caste and religion in their life

30 respondents were selected through snowball sampling and interviewed to investigate the objectives of the study. Analysis of the data presents pattern that the most of the couples who married outside were in romantic relations; attraction between the persons culminating in physical relations also binded them in marriage. Working in same professional spheres also facilitated and fomented the bonds between the couples. This study also finds that few respondents married outside their caste as a part of their ideological commitment of destroying the caste system.

Objective of this paper is twofold:

1.     to examine the perceptions of intermarried couple about intermarriages and

2.     to explore whether intermarried couple and their children are able to transcend the identities of caste and religion in their life.

Edward Westermarck in his classic History of Human Marriage cites the practice of intermarriage as idea prevailing across the world on the basis of race, caste, religion and culture. It cites the practice of intermarriages and its recognition in Ancient India. Westermarck further cited that castes were not able to maintain their purity and even amidst Brahmins there were some sub castes as splinter groups.

Robert King Merton used the concept of intermarriages in his classic work Social Theory and Social Structure (1968). Merton discusses about intermarriages in chapter titled ‘Intermarriage and social structure’. Observing in American context, he said that  every family has its own culture and exchanges it with other family through marriage. When marital relations take place between two different cultures, it becomes intermarriages. In his view, every marriage is intermarriage. Viewing from this point of view, every caste in Indian subcontinent is culturally distinct from other. Hence marriage between the members of different castes can be interpreted as intermarriage.

Kingsley Davis used the concept of intermarriages in Indian context as though marriages here only take place between the same caste, but also in sub castes.

Ghurye (1969) and Kolenda (1978) express the similar opinion that caste and intermarriages are directly contradictory to each other. Caste and caste as system evolved on the basis of endogamy. Hence, the violation of endogamy is violation of caste. Castes, thus oppose intermarriages apprehending that it weakens their base.

C T Kannan conducted the study on intermarriages in the city of Bombay observed that the role of women education as significant leverage in intermarriages. Women education besides giving the freedom to choose their spouses also helped in increasing the age of marriage.

Chintamani (1973) conducted study about intermarriages in Andhra Pradesh. Most of the parents interviewed from rural areas wanted their children to marry from their own group. Castes located in the low region of hierarchy attempting to conserve their status were reported by the study. Endogamy is not only practiced by castes located in the higher region of hierarchy but also lower castes considering marriages within the caste as preferred. Only few groups have shown interest in Intercaste marriages.

Study by Reddy et. al (1984) has identified that people belonging to scheduled castes showed more tendency to marry outside their castes. Economic context of middle classes that is residing in urban areas with good education and employment with modern outlook were identified as factors influencing intermarriages. Moreover, decision to intermarry was found among people at relatively higher age than at younger page. If Intercaste marriages were 9.9 percent and interreligious marriages were at

K M Kapadia (1966) interviewed graduates of the University in study conducted on Intercaste marriages to find their attitudes about inter marriages. Most of the parents have agreed to accept their children’s marriage outside their castes; whereas, 1/3 of the respondents have expressed dissatisfaction for marrying their children outside their castes.

Prasad (1957) and Banerjee et.al (1978) have noted the effects of industrialization and urbanization in breaking caste system

Corwin A. Lauren (1977) in Caste, Class and the Love Marriage: Social Change in India observed that education institutions and recreation centres have provided space for love marriages. Protection given by special marriage act and urban ward migration are identified as facilitating factors

Avinash Bale (2013) studied the educated youth of Kolhapur city to understand their opinion and views about inter caste marriages. 72 percent of the respondents interviewed expressed the opinion in favour of intermarriages. For them marriage is ‘pure mental union of two people irrespective of the caste, class and religion (p. 26). Though the educated youths are in favour of intermarriages, they admitted that family plays an important role in the decision making of marriages which act as constraining factor in this regard. Aspects of isolation and exclusion, insecurity, reputation of family come in the way of intermarriages though the youths are in favour of it.

Srinivas Goli et.al (2013) attempted to understand the extent of mixed and conventional marriages and to examine the influencing factors, particularly social and economic factors. Keeping the data of Human Development Report 2005 in view, they have tried to identify the extent of mixed marriages. They defined mixed marriages as marriages between the individuals belonging different race, culture and nationality. While analysing the outcomes of the Human development report 2005, they have identified the increase in the average age at which women marry. Study reported the increase in mixed marriages from 3.5 percent to 6.1 percent and increase in interreligious marriages to the tune of 1.6 percent. Women who marry outside their caste and or religion are educated with good economic status from urban background, which also implies the lesser number of people from scheduled castes and Muslims. It brings out the correlation between progress in educational and economic status of women and increase in intermarriages. Women with good education and economic background and involved in respectable jobs are able to select their matches transcending the boundaries of caste and religion.

Kumudin Das et. al (2011) discussed patterns and determining factors of Intercaste and interreligious marriages. They have used the data of NHFS from the year 2005-06. Intercaste marriages in India are at 10 percent and interreligious marriages at 2.1 percent. Noticeable aspect found in the discussion of this article is that among 10 percent of intermarriages,  4.97 percent of women married the persons who belong to lower castes than theirs and women married the persons who belong to higher castes than theirs is 4.90 percent.

Tripad Chaudhari et.al (2020) observes that castes are opposed to constitutional values such as equality, social mobility, profession and laws of nature. Since endogamy is the basis of caste system, Intercaste marriages naturally undermine the very premise of caste system.

Illal Ahmed Kumar (2021) while reviewing the literature on intermarriages observes that due to the influence of education and modernity, intermarriages are increasing; globalization and development process is impacting the institution of marriage. In India, studies on intermarriages are largely thematic and conceptual and whereas, empirical studies are case studies. He used the concept of intermarriages which comprises of Intercaste, interreligious, intercommunity, inter-ethnic marriages under its ambit.

The present study is empirical in nature. It selected 30 respondents for the study through snowball sampling and interviewed method was adopted to collect the data. Study was conducted in the city of Mysuru. Mysuru being the cultural city of the Karnataka State has always been the hub of progressive ideas, achievements in education, social movements, and literary activities. In fact, Mysuru played the important role in awakening the consciousness of generations and in modernizing the system. 

Perception of Intermarried Couples on Intermarriage

Present study interviewed 30 respondents who have married outside their castes and religions. Examining the perception of intermarried persons about intermarriages is one of the objectives of the study. Around 37 percent of the respondents expressed that they deliberately married outside their caste and religion. On enquiring further, why did they deliberately marry outside their castes and religion, one of the respondents said that she liked the person whom she married. She also added that she respects him the most as he is caring and very good hearted person. Moreover, her husband respects her and her views. Another respondent working as scientist in prestigious central government research institution said that he ‘wanted to live with person who can understand him and avoid the complex situations and relations embedded in arranged marriages. Moreover, he categorically expressed that he married his wife because he was in love with her and valued the relationship. He expressed that he had very positive impression about intermarriage before his marriage which has not changed even after nearly two decades of his married life.

In slight contrast to the above view, a women professional working as Faculty in higher educational institution said that she married the person outside her caste as marrying him was better option than the proposal given by her parents within her caste. This implies that her decision to marry outside her group is also deliberate. Another respondent who is working as Lecturer in government educational institution said that when they marry a person whom they like, it becomes a deliberate decision to marry outside her own caste. She holds strong conviction that person is higher than caste. Moreover, when persons develop dissatisfaction with their own culture and practices and when it is coupled with oppression of their mother and her siblings under patriarchal domination, they may make deliberate decisions to marry outside their group and culture. They think that marrying outside would give them freedom and space to assert their existence and freedom. Three respondents echoed the views.

One of the respondents expressed that consensus between the two person who are to marry is most important in intermarriage but insists for family’s approval which is important in from the view of getting  wider  social approval for their marriages and integration. Another respondent highlights that understanding and adjustment are key factors in intermarriages.

Husband and wife who are from different religious background and working in police department  drew our attention to the fact women who marry outside their religion experience difficulties which are different than those encountered in inter caste marriages. Women are forced to leave or severe her attachment with her parents’ homes; impact of which is very profound in terms of her loss of attachment.  Either of the couple have to give up their religious- cultural identity which includes and permeates the way they dress to the ways they dine. If Hindu man marries a Muslim woman, he and his family may experience embarrassment when women’s mother and relatives visit their daughter’s home cladded in Burkha, particularly when their residence is located in area dominated by Hindus.

A Lecturer working in college who belongs to Brahmin caste shared that such problems associated with intermarriage will be less if they lead independent nuclear family life and if both the couple are less conscious about their religions, understanding and adjustment will be better. She points out that it will be difficult for women to adjust with husband’s family and customs.

A Women respondent working as Assistant Professor in government higher educational institution said ‘it is good if their rights are not violated; other wises there will be no difference between intermarriage and marriage within the caste and or religion.

A respondent working as researcher in Central Institute of Indian languages in Mysuru has positive experiences to share about intermarriages. She said:

Unexpectedly intermarriage takes me into a different world in a positive way. I learned many new cultures and way of living and my husband and in laws learned my culture

The above table presents the picture that 63.3 percent of the respondents shared that their decision to marry outside their group is not intentional; and not as outcome of previously formed convictions and ideology to fight against caste in which intermarriage becomes one of the major tools to destroy the caste.  Whereas, 36.66 percent of the respondents stated that their decision to marry was in a way an outcome of their volition.     

   

Among the 19 respondents who said that their intermarriage was not intentional act, 07 respondents said that persons they loved and valued very much belonged to castes other than theirs own. Hence, persons they liked, their personality and values of the relations became significant and caste became immaterial for them. Respondents articulated that because of their fears, preconceived notions, challenges and serious consequences associated with intermarriages prevented them from even thinking and musing about the idea of intermarriages. But once they met and liked the persons whom they married, they were able to come out and transcend their ideas and fears. They were unequivocal in expressing that their profound love for their partners emboldened them to take risk in important decision of their life. 

10 respondents constituting 53 percent of the 19 respondents expressed that marrying the persons they liked was better than the proposals given by their parents within their castes and religion. This view is reflected in the preceding page. Marrying the persons from different group becomes a sign and path of escape and relief from stifling and suffocating situations. They married the persons who were compatible to them in education, employment, views and life style.  We can definitely see here couples exercising their freedom. Moreover, their decision to marry outside their caste and religion and getting their decisions finally accepted and marriage arranged out of consensus shows their agency in overcoming structural constraints.

Changes in perception about Intermarriage: Before Marriage

The main purpose in enquiring this aspect is to examine the perceptions of respondents on intermarriage and how it was shaped : it aimed at probing how the perception and opinion changed from negative to positive after the meeting the person whom they married and from positive to negative after their marriage. One of the respondents expressed that she felt insecure by thinking that she had to live with person from different language, religion and culture. But she noted that he anxiousness withered away as her relationship with her beloved person grew. She developed the confidence that she could live with him and her life after marriage might be better than marrying from her own community.                

A respondent working as lecturer in college said that she thought intermarriages were romantic and revolutionary. A senior technical officer working in Central government research institution said that he had positive impression about intermarriages and he admitted that he still has the same impression.  Same opinion was echoed by Assistant Professor who is working in Higher educational institution

Another respondent who is homemaker and whose husband works as software engineer had a very clear understanding about intermarriages. She said that education job and personality of a person is important and it does not matter to whichever caste he belongs.

Three respondents, of them two who are working in police department and the other person as lab technician shared similar perception about intermarriages before their marriages. They apprehended that they would be subject to blaming, would be isolated from relations besides with uncertainty whether they would get such a trusted person to intermarry.

Among the 03 respondents, who admitted the changes in perceptions about intermarriages, a respondent, working as Sub Inspector of Police, who married outside their religions expressed that it would be irrelevant to expect close relations between families of couple. When in laws of their spouses visit homes with different attire cladded in Burkha, the way speak may put them into embarrassment. Two women respondents both of them are working expressed their pain that after their inter (religious) marriage, their connections and attachment with their mother and family has been severed. Before marriage, they were widely consulted in making decisions. After their interreligious marriage, they were side-lined, ignored, isolated and excluded. All these factors created in them frustration developing in their mind a sort of repenting attitude sometimes about intermarriage.

Question of Identity among Intermarried Couples: Role of Caste  and Religion

One of the objectives of the study is to to explore whether intermarried couple and their children are able to transcend the identities of caste and religion in their life. In order to examine this, we have asked respondents a question whether their children were identified with caste identities of either of the spouses. Out of 30 respondents we studied for the present study, 28 couples have children. More than 76 percent of the respondents, that is 21 in number, said that their children were identified with their caste. Among 21 respondents, one respondent who is working in Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysuru  shared that her son is identified with her caste, that is, on the lines of mother.  23 percent of the respondents said ‘No’. On probing further why their children were not identified with caste, they said that they have identified their children in school documents as under general category as most of them are employed in state and central government sectors. Besides they demonstrate progressive outlook that they don’t want their children to be identified on the lines of caste. Principle reason behind their decision is their conviction that since they intermarried without considering caste and religion, they do not want to identify their children with their castes. Moreover, they are still minor, they decided to leave the matter of identity to their children to decide once they attain their maturity. 

When respondents were further asked about the question of their children getting married from different castes, 23 respondents admitted that they do not have any objections in this regard and they are open to it. Whereas 05 respondents said that they want their children to marry the persons belonging to castes of theirs husbands.  

Intermarriages and Acceptance

This study wants to understand how the intermarriages of respondents were accepted by their families. Nearly 57 percent of the respondents said that their marriages were accepted by their families and 43 percent of the respondents reported that they faced resistance and opposition by their families to their decision of intermarriage and not accepted.

Reasons for not accepting intermarriage and daughter in law

On probing further why 13 respondents’ marriages were not accepted, 04 respondents said that they were not welcomed due to their caste identity; 06 respondents admitted that they were not accepted due to their caste and religious identities and 03 respondents pointed out at their class conditions along with their caste identity as reason for resistance, opposition and non-acceptance of their marriage.

Intermarriages are universal phenomenon. Marriage decides the nature of group; that is, decides the membership in group. A differentiated society is a diverse society with the presence of heterogeneous groups and complex form of stratification. This study used the concept intermarriage instead of intercaste, interreligious marriage. Intermarriage as a concept is broader in scope which includes under its ambit all forms of intermarriage such as intercaste, inter religious, interracial, intercultural marriages.  Intercaste and interreligious marriages assume significance in Indian context. Castes and caste system have shaped Indian society since more than millennium. With the intensification of the processes of social change in the forms of westernization, modernization and globalization, people’s perception and beliefs about marriages have undergone changes which are manifested in the form of intermarriages. Present study was conducted in the city of Mysuru with twin objectives in reference:

1.     to examine the perceptions of intermarried couple about intermarriages and

2.     to explore whether intermarried couple and their children are able to transcend the identities of caste and religion in their life.

Respondents were selected for the study by employing method of snow ball sampling. Data have analyzed and presented in the preceding sections. Following are the broad findings which we have identified in this study:

Urban Oriented-Respondents are from urban background. They have hailed from Mysuru and some of them have come to Mysuru in their young age to pursue their education. Thus their views and beliefs were groomed in urban setting and displays positive attitude in favour of intermarriages.

Highly Educated-All respondents are highly educated, which is amply illustrated in table 01. This bears correlation with their open mind set about intermarriages, which is evident from table.

Employment-Except two respondents, all of them are working in different sectors. Notable among them are professors, scientists, bureaucrats and from police department. This is another contributing factor to intermarriage, particularly women who after attaining employment have exercised their independence and autonomy in making important decision of their life.

Assertion of Agency-as we have discussed above respondents are from urban setting with higher education and employment have exercised their will in deciding to marry outside their groups that is caste and religions. It shows that respondents have exercised their freedom in their decisions to marry outside their caste and religion which clearly implies the assertion of agency over the constraints of structure.

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1. Draft version of paper was presented in 48th AISC at Vellore in RC 02 Family, Marriage and Kinship