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One of the central concerns of philosophical traditions has been and remains the notion of the 'self' and a striving for self-realization. In this regard, this literature review brings together scholars' views about conceptualizations and methods concerning self-realization with respect to their notions of the 'self' from Indian and Western philosophies.
Indian Concepts of Self

Hinduism
Advaita Vedanta: Advaita Vedanta is one of the most important schools of thought under the Hindu tradition in philosophy that goes deep into the interpretation of the self. According to Radhakrishnan, this tradition holds the view that the self, or Atman, is ultimate reality and has some intrinsic relationship to the Brahman, the Universal Spirit. This philosophy holds that Atman and Brahman are identical; Maya, or illusion of separateness, conceals this unity. Deutsch, in 1973, explains further that such oneness is realized through means like meditation and inquiry into the self whereby one gets to realize Moksha, or liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Buddhism
In Buddhism, the concept of self diverges radically. Murti remarks that Buddhism does not accept the permanence of any unchanging self but proposes in its place the doctrine of Anatta, or no-self. The self is conceived to be a transitory combination of five aggregates: form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. Self-realization lies in the direction of understanding these impermanent constituents of the self and treading the Noble Eightfold Path toward Nirvana or extinction of misery.

Jainism
Jainism brings another aspect of unique perspective whereby it purifies the soul or Jiva. For Wright, 2009 Jainism perceives every soul as eternal and pure at its core. However, the same gets contaminated by karma. Self-realization according to Jainism tries to cleanse the soul through ethical conduct and ascetic practices. By so doing, this takes one to 'Moksha.' A stage where one is entirely free from karmic influences.

Western Ideas of the Self

Platonic Theory

Plato's dualistic theory about the self is basic to Western thought. Cooper describes Plato's view as separating the mortal body from the immortal soul. According to him, the soul itself will find its real character in the sphere of immutable Forms or Ideas. The remembering by the soul of such eternal Forms—especially the Form of the Good—in searching for self-actualization identifies a better understanding of reality and virtue.

Existentialism
There are radically different views as far as self-actualization is concerned with the philosophy of contemporary existentialist philosophers. The concept of "being-for-itself" by Sartre holds that there is a need for confronting freedom and responsibility to create meaning through choices (May, 1958). Heidegger's concept of "Being-toward-death" holds the view that the realization of mortality is central to living an authentic life. Both existentialist views bear the common factor of personal authenticity and freedom at the heart of self-actualization and oppose more metaphysical approaches.

Comparative Insights

While the traditions of India and the West are oriented toward transcendence from ordinary life, in their methods and ultimate aims they differ. Most Indian philosophies favour realization by way of meditation, inquiry into self, and ethical practices to realize spiritual essence or relation to some greater reality. On the other hand, Western philosophy, and especially existentialism, regards personal freedom, authenticity, and intellectual understanding as ways to self-realization.

The literature brings to the fore a tapestry, rich in philosophical thoughts about the nature of the self and paths to self-realization, and spelling out convergences and divergences between these traditions. It is through these traditions that scholars can understand in greater depth how different cultures approached this basic question of personal identity and quest for meaning.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, the concept of the self is intricately tied to the ideas of Atman and Brahman, particularly in the Advaita Vedanta school of thought.

Advaita Vedanta:

Atman: According to Advaita Vedanta, Atman is the true self, the innermost essence of an individual, which is eternal, unchanging, and beyond physical or mental attributes. Atman is pure consciousness, distinct from the ego or personal identity.

Brahman: Brahman is the ultimate reality or cosmic spirit, which is infinite and transcendent. Advaita Vedanta posits that Atman and Brahman are one and the same; realizing this unity is the key to self-realization. The famous Upanishadic dictum "Tat Tvam Asi" ("That Thou Art") encapsulates this idea.

Maya: The illusion that causes individuals to perceive themselves as separate from Brahman is called Maya. Overcoming Maya through self-inquiry, meditation, and ethical living is central to achieving Moksha (liberation).

Buddhism

Buddhism presents a contrasting view with its doctrine of Anatta (non-self).

Anatta:

Non-Self: Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent, unchanging self. Instead, it teaches that what we consider the self is a collection of five aggregates (skandhas): form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.

Impermanence: Everything, including the self, is impermanent and subject to change. Clinging to the notion of a permanent self is a source of suffering.

Nirvana: The realization of Anatta, along with the understanding of the Four Noble Truths and the practice of the Eightfold Path, leads to Nirvana, the cessation of suffering and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Jainism

Jainism offers yet another perspective with its focus on the purification of the soul (Jiva).

Jiva:

Individual Soul: In Jainism, each living being possesses a soul (Jiva) which is eternal and distinct from other souls. Jivas are inherently pure but become tainted by karma through actions.

Liberation: The goal of self-realization in Jainism is to rid the soul of accumulated karma. This is achieved through strict ethical conduct, non-violence (Ahimsa), and ascetic practices.

Moksha: Liberation (Moksha) is attained when the soul is completely purified, allowing it to rise to its natural, blissful state.

Common Themes

Despite the differences among these traditions, several common themes emerge in the Indian concept of the self:

Spiritual Essence: There is a strong emphasis on the self as a spiritual essence, distinct from the physical and mental attributes.

Realization through Practice: Self-realization is often achieved through spiritual practices such as meditation, ethical living, and self-inquiry.

Liberation: The ultimate goal is liberation from the cycle of birth and death, whether through the realization of unity with Brahman, understanding the nature of Anatta, or purifying the soul.

The Indian concept of the self thus presents a profound and multi-faceted exploration of personal identity, consciousness, and the path to spiritual liberation, offering rich insights for comparative philosophical inquiry.

 

 

The 'Self' in Western Thought: The Platonic Theory of the Self

Western philosophy has also delved deeply into the concept of the self, with one of the foundational perspectives being that of Plato. The Platonic theory of the self presents a dualistic view, distinguishing between the physical and the non-physical aspects of human existence. Plato’s ideas have profoundly influenced Western thought on the self and self-realization.

Platonic Theory of the Self

Dualism

Body and Soul: Plato’s concept of the self is fundamentally dualistic. He posits that human beings are composed of two distinct substances: the body (physical) and the soul (non-physical). The body is mortal and perishable, while the soul is immortal and eternal.

Allegory of the Chariot: In the Phaedrus, Plato uses the allegory of the chariot to describe the soul. The chariot is pulled by two horses, one representing rationality and the other representing desire. The charioteer symbolizes reason, which must control and guide the horses to achieve harmony and ascend to the realm of the forms.

Theory of Forms:

Forms (Ideas): Central to Plato’s philosophy is the Theory of Forms. According to this theory, the material world is a shadow of a higher reality consisting of immutable and eternal Forms or Ideas. True knowledge involves recollecting these Forms, which the soul has known before its incarnation in the physical body.

Self-Realization: For Plato, self-realization involves the soul’s recollection and understanding of the Forms, especially the Form of the Good. This intellectual and spiritual ascent leads to a deeper understanding of the true nature of reality and the self.

Knowledge and Virtue

Knowledge as Virtue: Plato equates knowledge with virtue. The highest form of knowledge is the understanding of the Forms, which leads to virtuous living. Self-realization, therefore, is not merely an intellectual pursuit but also a moral one.

Philosopher-King: In the Republic, Plato argues that the ideal ruler is the philosopher-king, who has achieved self-realization by understanding the Forms and thus can govern wisely and justly.

Comparison with Indian Thought

Similarities

Transcendence: Both Platonic and Indian philosophies emphasize the transcendence of the true self beyond the physical realm. For Plato, the soul transcends the body and aspires to the world of Forms, similar to how the Atman in Hinduism transcends physical existence to realize its unity with Brahman.

Intellectual and Ethical Pursuit: Both traditions link self-realization to intellectual understanding and ethical living. In Advaita Vedanta, self-realization involves understanding the unity of Atman and Brahman, accompanied by a life of Dharma (righteousness).

Differences

Nature of the Self: In Indian philosophies like Advaita Vedanta, the self (Atman) is ultimately one with the universal reality (Brahman), whereas, in Platonic thought, the self (soul) retains its individuality even as it contemplates the Forms.

Reincarnation: The concept of reincarnation is central to Indian philosophies, where the self undergoes cycles of rebirth until achieving liberation. Plato also believes in the immortality of the soul and its transmigration but focuses more on the soul’s journey toward knowledge rather than a cycle of rebirth aimed at liberation.

Ethical and Practical Implications

Plato’s theory of the self and self-realization has significant ethical and practical implications:

Moral Development: Emphasizes the cultivation of reason and knowledge as the path to virtuous living.

Education: Stresses the importance of philosophical education to guide individuals toward self-realization and just governance.

Governance: Suggests that those who have achieved a higher understanding of the self and reality are best suited to lead and make ethical decisions.

Plato’s theory of the self provides a foundational framework in Western thought that emphasizes the dualistic nature of human existence, the pursuit of higher knowledge, and the ethical implications of self-realization. This contrasts and complements the diverse perspectives in Indian philosophy, offering rich avenues for comparative analysis and deeper understanding of the concept of the self across cultures.

Self - Realization

Self-Realization: Comparative Analysis of Indian and Western Concepts

Self-realization is a central theme in both Indian and Western philosophies, yet the approaches and underlying principles in each tradition vary significantly. This comparative analysis explores the concept of self-realization, examining the methods, objectives, and philosophical foundations in Indian and Western thought.

Indian Concepts of Self-Realization

Indian philosophies offer diverse and profound insights into self-realization, primarily through Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Hinduism (Advaita Vedanta)

Unity of Atman and Brahman: Self-realization in Advaita Vedanta involves the recognition that the individual self (Atman) is identical with the universal reality (Brahman). This realization is the key to liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).

Meditative Practices: Techniques like meditation (Dhyana) and self-inquiry (Atma Vichara) are essential. The practice of Neti Neti ("not this, not this") helps in discarding all false identifications to reveal the true self.

Ethical Living: Living a life of Dharma (righteousness) and practicing non-attachment (Vairagya) are crucial in purifying the mind and facilitating self-realization.

Buddhism

Understanding Anatta (Non-Self): Self-realization in Buddhism involves the profound understanding that there is no permanent, unchanging self (Anatta). Recognizing this truth leads to the cessation of suffering (Dukkha) and the achievement of Nirvana.

Mindfulness and Insight: Practices such as mindfulness (Sati) and insight meditation (Vipassana) are pivotal in observing the impermanent nature of the self and the phenomena.

Eightfold Path: Ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom, as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path, guide practitioners towards self-realization and liberation.

Jainism

Purification of the Soul (Jiva): Self-realization in Jainism is achieved by purifying the soul from karmic impurities through strict ethical practices and asceticism.

Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Adherence to non-violence and other vows (Vratas) is essential in freeing the soul from karma.

Meditation and Self-Discipline: Practices like meditation (Dhyana) and severe self-discipline aid in the process of self-purification and realization.

Western Concepts of Self-Realization

Western philosophy also provides rich perspectives on self-realization, prominently through the works of ancient Greek philosophers and modern existentialists.

Plato

Knowledge of the Forms: For Plato, self-realization involves the soul’s recollection and understanding of the eternal Forms, especially the Form of the Good. This intellectual and moral ascent leads to true knowledge and virtuous living.

Philosophical Inquiry: Engaging in dialectical reasoning and philosophical inquiry helps the soul transcend the physical realm and grasp the higher truths.

Ethical Implications: Self-realization is linked to living a virtuous life, guided by reason and knowledge.

Existentialism (Sartre, Heidegger)

Authenticity: Modern existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger focus on authenticity as a form of self-realization. This involves recognizing one’s freedom and responsibility in creating meaning and essence through choices.

Being and Nothingness: Sartre’s concept of "being-for-itself" emphasizes the need to confront and embrace one’s freedom, while Heidegger’s "Being-toward-death" stresses the importance of acknowledging mortality in achieving authentic existence.

Ethical Living: Existential self-realization demands living in accordance with one’s true self, free from societal conventions and false identities.

Comparative Analysis

Similarities

Transcendence: Both traditions emphasize transcending ordinary, mundane existence to achieve a higher understanding of the self.

Ethical Conduct: Ethical living and moral discipline are crucial in both Indian and Western approaches to self-realization.

Intellectual and Spiritual Pursuit: Both emphasize the importance of intellectual or spiritual practices, whether through meditation, philosophical inquiry, or mindfulness.

Differences

Nature of the Self: Indian philosophies often view the self as a spiritual essence (Atman or Jiva) or deny a permanent self (Anatta), while Western thought, especially existentialism, focuses on the self as a construct of personal freedom and responsibility.

Methodologies: Indian traditions employ meditation, self-inquiry, and ethical practices, whereas Western approaches may emphasize philosophical reasoning, existential contemplation, and personal authenticity.

Ultimate Goal: In Indian philosophies, the goal is often liberation (Moksha or Nirvana) from the cycle of birth and death, while in Western thought, the aim may be to live an authentic and meaningful life within one’s existence.

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