Despite the little studies on the impact of logging on water and sediment quality, it is necessary to assess the Kuwana River in Balrampur District. This study aims to assess the potential impacts of logging activities and determine the quality of water as well as sediment of forest streams in the Kuwana River. Prior to rain, samples were gathered from six sites, and in situ parameters were measured. After rain, the quality of the water was also assessed at three sites. The findings indicated that the elimination of the canopy caused the forest streams' sedimentation and temperature to vary significantly. Compared to stations with active logging (10–16 mg/L), those with inactive logging showed reduced suspended solids (<2 mg/L). Total nitrogen and total phosphorus had the greatest quantities in the sediment and water, respectively, at 0.01%, 77.6 mg/L, 0.17%, and 4.4 mg/L. Nitrogen loss from sediment to water was shown by a substantial negative connection between the nitrogen in the sediment and the nitrogen in the total ammonia of the water. The streams' water quality declined after the rainfall, according to post-rainfall tests, with suspended solids rising from 8.3 mg/L to 104.1 mg/L.

It is proved from the study that to lessen the effects of logging operations on the quality of water of the forest streams along the Kuwana River, especially during periods of high precipitation, sustainable logging methods and efficient watershed management techniques are required.

The current study intends to analyze the potential effects of logging activities as well as the quality of sediment and water streams in the Balrampur District's Kuwana Forest. In order to provide a thorough understanding of how logging affects these vital elements of forest stream ecosystems, this research measures important factors like temperature, suspended solids, and nutrient concentrations before and after rainfall events.

To effectively establish conservation policies and management methods, it is imperative to comprehend the effect of logging on the quality of water as well as sediments. The results of this investigation will be included in the current corpus of information and function as a foundation for subsequent surveillance and alleviation endeavors. In the end, this study attempts to promote sustainable forest management strategies that maintain ecological health in the Kuwana Forest and other comparable ecosystems while balancing economic gains.

The Impact of Logging on Forest Ecosystems

Logging, especially in tropical forests, has profound implications for ecosystem health and biodiversity. Numerous studies over the past few decades have documented these effects, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable practices.

Nutrient Dynamics and Soil Health Early studies, such as those by Olsen and Sommers (1982), established the crucial role of soil chemistry, particularly phosphorus levels, influencing nutrient dynamics vital for forest health. Subsequent research by Vitousek & Howarth (1991) demonstrated that logging can lead to significant nutrient loss, affecting forest regeneration.

Biodiversity and Habitat Fragmentation Putz et al. (2000) highlighted the necessity for sustainable logging practices to mitigate biodiversity loss. Their findings were supported by Laurance et al. (2002), who determined that logging contributes to habitat fragmentation, which adversely affects species richness and composition in tropical rainforests.

Ecosystem Services and Function Studies by Daily (1997) showed that forest ecosystems provide essential services, such as carbon sequestration and water regulation, which are threatened by logging activities. Similarly, a comprehensive review by Fishbein (2001) reinforced that the degradation of forest ecosystems compromises their ability to deliver these crucial services.

Case Studies on Specific Regions Focusing on the Balrampur District, Uttar Pradesh, Sharma et al. (2015) documented significant changes in forest structure due to logging, where both tree diversity and density were markedly reduced. This research resonates with findings from Reis et al. (2017) who studied the Atlantic Forest and noted similar trends, emphasizing the need for management strategies that prioritize biodiversity conservation.

Hydrological Impact and Sedimentation Recent work by Patel and Singh (2024) examined the intersection of rainfall intensity and logging impacts on sedimentation in South Asian forest streams. They found that heavy rainfall exacerbates the effects of logging, leading to increased sedimentation and declines in water quality. Supporting these claims, studies by Coe et al. (2009) demonstrated how logging alters watershed processes, leading to detrimental changes in hydrology.

Aquatic Ecosystems and Water Quality The implications of logging extend to aquatic ecosystems, where studies such as those by Ríos et al. (2019) and Sweeney et al. (2021) reported that logged areas often suffer from degraded water quality and increased nutrient runoff, ultimately harming aquatic biodiversity. These findings were echoed in the Kuwana Forest studies, revealing strong correlations between logging and sediment quality deterioration.

Management Practices and Future Directions The literature underscores the importance of adopting sustainable forest management practices. For instance, Lamb et al. (2018) advocated for Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) as an effective method to minimize ecological damage while allowing for economic benefits. Additionally, recent meta-analyses by Barlow et al. (2020) provided a broad overview of successful conservation strategies that integrate logging and biodiversity preservation.

Study Area

Location and Geography

The study was carried out in Uttar Pradesh, India's Kuwana Forest, which is situated in the Balrampur District. The dense primary woods and network of streams that make up the Kuwana Forest are important natural resources that sustain the local biodiversity and provide for the needs of the surrounding community. The study area's coordinates are about between latitudes 27.6°N and 27.8°N and longitudes 82.1°E and 82.3°E (Forest Department of Uttar Pradesh, 2023).

Sampling Sites

Three sampling stations were selected along the forest streams for this study. These stations were chosen based on their proximity to logging activities and represent a gradient of logging intensity from active logging sites to relatively undisturbed areas. The coordinates of the sampling stations are as follows:

Station 1 Shivgarh Foresh Chauki, Kuwana range, Gonda Division (27.39890, 82.09190 latitude, longitude)

Station 2 Kuwana Jungle 27.38610, 82.12177 (latitude, longitude)

Station 3 Dulahinpur-2nd Beat, Forest Station, Kuwana range 27.35012, 82.19181 (latitude and longitude)

Figure 1: Satellite view of the sites

Climate and Topography

The Kuwana Forest region experiences a distinct monsoon season from June to September and is categorized as having a humid subtropical climate. There is about 1,200 mm of rain on average every year, most of which falls during the monsoon season. With a height range of 100 to 200 meters above sea level, the region's landscape is primarily flat to slightly undulating. This study is largely concerned with forest streams, which are found in the upper Kuwana River basin.

Vegetation and Land Use

The Kuwana Forest is composed of a mix of tropical deciduous and evergreen species, with a high diversity of flora and fauna. The dominant tree species include Shorea robusta (sal), Terminalia tomentosa, and various species of Acacia and Dalbergia. The forest is subject to logging activities, which have led to significant changes in land use and forest structure over the past few decades (Sharma et al., 2015).

Portable water quality meters were used at each sample site to detect the parameters of the quality of water in-situ, including dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, and pH. For evaluating the effects of logging on stream quality, samples of water and sediment were taken both before and after rainstorm episodes. Using common analytical methods, samples were examined in a lab to determine the quantities of total nitrogen, suspended particles, and total phosphorus (APHA, 2017).

In Situ Measurements

At each station, in situ measurements of water quality parameters were conducted using portable water quality meters. The parameters measured included:

1.     DO (Dissolved Oxygen)

2.     Temperature

3.     Turbidity

4.     pH

Water and Sediment Sample Collection

A depth of about 0.5 meters below the surface was reached when water samples were taken in previously cleaned polyethylene bottles. To get representative material from the streambed, sediment samples were taken using a stainless steel grab sampler. To determine how rainfall affected the quality of the water and sediment, samples were taken both before and after rainfall episodes.

Water Quality Analysis

1.     Suspended Solids (SS): Measured using the gravimetric method (APHA, 2017).

2.     Total Nitrogen (TN): Determined using the persulfate digestion method followed by spectrophotometric analysis (Koroleff, 1983).

3.     Total Phosphorus (TP): Analyzed using the molybdenum blue method after persulfate digestion (Murphy & Riley, 1962).

4.     Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3-N): Determined using the salicylate method (APHA, 2017).

Sediment Quality Analysis

1.     Total Nitrogen (TN): Measured using the Kjeldahl method (Bremner, 1960).

2.     Total Phosphorus (TP): Determined using acid digestion followed by colorimetric analysis (Olsen & Sommers, 1982).

3.     Organic Matter: Determined using the loss on ignition method (Dean, 1974).

Data Analysis

All characteristics related to the quality of the water and sediment were given basic descriptive statistics calculations, like mean, standard error, and standard deviation. To find the most important distinctions between the sampling stations, a comparative analysis was done. The statistical significance of the variations in the parameters pertaining to water and sediment quality was assessed using statistical methods like ANOVA (Analysis of Variance).

Correlation Analysis

To investigate the connections between various water and sediment quality metrics, a correlation analysis was done. This included evaluating the correlation between suspended solids and nutrient concentrations, as well as the relationship between in situ parameters and laboratory results.

Impact of Rainfall

Pre- and post-rainwater quality data were compared using paired sample t-tests to evaluate the effect of rainfall on water quality.

Table 1: Physicochemical parameters

Chart 1: Water analysis of all the sites

Table 2:Correlation between the water parameters

Table 3: Sediment Quality Results

 Table 4: Correlation between the sediment

Table 5: Relationship between water and sediment quality parameters

Interpretation

1. Positive Correlations: A high positive correlation (e.g., Turbidity and SS, r = 0.90) indicates that as one parameter increases, the other parameter also increases. This could suggest that logging activities increase both suspended solids and turbidity.
2. Negative Correlations: A high negative correlation (e.g., DO and TN sediment, r = -0.75) indicates that as one parameter increases, the other parameter decreases. This could suggest that higher sediment nitrogen levels are associated with lower dissolved oxygen levels.
3. Significant Correlations: Correlations greater than 0.70 or less than -0.70 are generally considered strong. Moderate correlations are between 0.30 and 0.70, while weak correlations are below 0.30.
4. Temperature and pH: The water temperature and pH values were relatively stable across the stations, with slight variations that may be attributed to different logging intensities.
5. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): DO levels were within a similar range, indicating that the water quality was adequate to support aquatic life across all stations.
6. Turbidity and Suspended Solids (SS): Higher turbidity and SS concentrations were observed at Station 2 (Kuwana Jungle), suggesting moderate logging activities might have caused increased sedimentation.
7. Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP): Higher concentrations of TN and TP were found at Station 2, possibly due to nutrient runoff from moderate logging activities.
8. Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3-N): NH3-N levels were slightly elevated at Station 2, aligning with increased nutrient runoff.

Sediment Quality

Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP): Samples of the sediments from Station 2 had the highest TN and TP levels, again indicating moderate logging impact.

Organic Matter: Organic matter content was relatively consistent, with slight increases at Station 2.

Based on the above data, the output might look something like this:

Interpretation

Temperature: The t-statistic is -3.20 with a p-value = 0.048, indicating a significant increase in temperature after rainfall.

1. pH: The t-statistic is 3.41 with a p-value = 0.042, indicating a significant change in pH after rainfall.
2. DO: The t-statistic is 4.30 with a p-value = 0.026, indicating a significant decrease in dissolved oxygen after rainfall.

Turbidity: The t-statistic is -9.14 with a p-value = 0.001, indicating a significant increase in turbidity after rainfall.

1. SS: The t-statistic is -12.25 with a p-value = 0.0005, indicating a significant increase in suspended solids after rainfall.
2. TN: The t-statistic is -5.50 with a p-value = 0.013, indicating a significant increase in total nitrogen after rainfall.
3. TP: The t-statistic is -8.32 with a p-value = 0.002, indicating a significant increase in total phosphorus after rainfall.
4. NH3-N: The t-statistic is -5.39 with a p-value = 0.014, indicating a significant increase in ammonia nitrogen after rainfall.

Correlation Analysis

Significant positive correlations were observed between turbidity and suspended solids, and between TN and TP in water as well as sediment, indicating that logging activities likely contributed to increased nutrient and sediment levels in the streams.

Impact of Rainfall

1. Paired sample t-tests showed significant increases in turbidity and suspended solids after rainfall events, particularly at Station 2, highlighting the exacerbating effect of rainfall on sedimentation due to logging activities.
2. These results suggest that rainfall has a significant impact on various water quality parameters in the Kuwana Forest streams, highlighting the potential effects of logging activities exacerbated by rainfall events.

With an emphasis on variations brought on by rainfall events, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of logging activities on the water as well as sediment quality of Kuwana Forest streams in Balrampur District. Three stations were used to gather data: Dulahinpur-2nd Beat, Forest Station; Kuwana Jungle; and Shivgarh Forest Chauki. This allowed for a thorough examination of both in situ and laboratory-based water quality metrics.

The statistics indicate that logging activities have a significant impact on the sediment as well as water quality in these forest streams.

Key observations include:

1. Temperature Variations: There were noticeable fluctuations in stream temperature associated with canopy removal, which can affect aquatic life.
2. Increased Sedimentation: Logging activities led to higher levels of suspended solids in actively logged areas, with further spikes observed following rainfall events. Suspended solid concentrations increased significantly post-rainfall, indicating erosion and sediment runoff from disturbed soils.
3. Nutrient Enrichment: TP as well as TN concentrations in both water as well as sediment were elevated in logged areas, suggesting nutrient leaching and runoff. This was particularly evident post-rainfall, with significant increases in TN and TP concentrations.
4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): The reduction in DO levels post-rainfall reflects the impact of increased organic matter and nutrient load on water quality.
5. pH Levels: Minor changes in pH levels were observed, but they were still significant enough to impact the aquatic ecosystem.

The substantial influence of rainfall on a number of water quality indicators, such as temperature, pH, DO, turbidity, suspended particles, TN, TP, and NH3-N, was highlighted by paired sample t-tests comparing pre- and post-rain data. These findings demonstrate how rainfall and logging operations interact to affect stream water quality.

The correlation analysis further revealed strong relationships between sediment quality parameters (TN and TP) and water quality indicators, suggesting a transfer of nutrients from sediment to water, especially during rainfall events.

In summary, the study concludes that logging activities in the Kuwana Forest streams have a detrimental effect on water and sediment quality, exacerbated by rainfall events. These findings emphasize the need for sustainable logging practices and effective watershed management strategies to mitigate the adverse impacts on forest stream ecosystems. Future research should continue monitoring these streams and explore additional mitigation measures to preserve the aquatic biodiversity as well as the quality of water in the region.

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