Assistant Professor

Department of Law

University of Lucknow

 Lucknow, U.P., India 

Abstract

There are already a lot of violations of the law that don't involve violence. White-collar crimes, on the other hand, outnumber more common ones like theft, burglary, and arson. White-collar crime victims greatly outnumber those affected by other types of crime. The yearly cost of such crimes in the United States may exceed $200 billion, according to some estimates. Both internationally and in India, these types of crimes are on the increase. In this article, I attempted to address the nuances of white-collar crime. When I study white-collar criminals, I'll separate them into two categories: those who steal, cheat, and lie on the job and those who commit any number of crimes associated with businesses. In addition, I'll be investigating corporate wrongdoing, corporate criminal responsibility, and any inconsistencies therein.

Keywords: Corporate crime, Crime, White-collar crime.

Introduction

Accounting fraud has been studied extensively. Business fraud has existed for as long as there has been an accounting system. Therefore, there is a plethora of written material accessible on these subjects. Recent scams and frauds in Indian company accounting are discussed, along with related themes. In his study, Chander Mohan Gupta (2018) studied several cases of accounting fraud that occurred in different parts of the nation. The authors of this piece have isolated a few root variables that have repeatedly contributed to a spate of accounting frauds in the Indian business sector from 1995 to 2022. They looked at what led up to the most notable frauds and scams that have come to light recently. To determine the prevalence and severity of fraud triangle components, Vishnu S. Kumar and Dr. Biju T. (2012-2018) analyze corporate frauds via the lens of the fraud triangle. "The fraud triangle is one of the most popular models used to explain accounting fraud in small and large enterprises alike. The American sociologist and criminologist Donald Cressey detailed his investigation of the fraud triangle, which was initially identified in the 1950s, in his book Other People's Money. The three sides of the fraud triangle—incentive/pressure, opportunity, and rationalization—have been extensively explored in the academic literature, usually on the assumption that the deception was perpetrated by a single person.[1] Mayank Shrivastava analyzed the major accounting frauds that occurred both before and after the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) was established. Between 1947 and 1992, he focused on the period "PRE-SEBI," during which the capital market was considered a little weak because there was no authority that could have served as a severe regulator. He looks at the scams that have happened in both sectors, why they have occurred, and most crucially, how the introduction of SEBI as a main regulator of the market has changed things in the business world.[2]

White-Collar Crimes

Nonviolent offenses perpetrated by businessmen and public servants are known as "white-collar crimes." In 1939, a sociologist by the name of Edwin Sutherland coined the term "White-collar crime" to describe "a crime committed by the person of respectability and high school status while engaged in the course of their occupation." White-collar crimes are committed by businesspeople for monetary benefit. Businesspeople with access to enormous sums of money are the ones committing this. Fraud and other forms of dishonesty done for monetary gain. White-collar crimes may also refer to someone's antisocial behavior in the workplace. White-collar crimes do not need the use of physical force or violence to occur. They are acts of individual criminals who are part of a larger, coordinated plot.

2.1 Origination of White-Collar Crimes

Term "white-collar crime" created by Edwin Sutherland in 1939. White-collar crime is a concept coined by Edwin Sutherland. He was the 29th president of the American Sociological Association and a professor of sociology. In the course of his work, he committed "White-collar crimes," which he characterized as "crimes by a person of respectability and high social status."[3]

2.2 Types Of White-Collar Crimes

I'll be using cases to illustrate each of the four categories of white-collar crime. Here are a few of them:

2. Fraud:-Cheating is another term for fraud. Concealing or embellishing material facts to get an unfair advantage is fraud. Misrepresenting facts verbally or in writing with the intent of gaining financial advantage is fraud. This decision will hurt them financially.

For Example:-Joseph answered a classified post in search of a rental home. He went to see the alleged landlord, took a tour of the flat, and signed a lease. Joseph pre-paid the first month's rent plus the security deposit. When Joseph returned to the flat the next week to get the key, he discovered that someone else had already moved in. Joseph found out after giving the guy the money that the apartment wasn't really for rent and that the man he spoke with wasn't actually the owner of the property. A white-collar crime was done when the mn pretended to be the owner to scam money from a potential renter.

3. Extortion:- The term "extortion" refers to the practice of coercing another person into giving up money or valuables by threats or by making fraudulent claims of ownership. In most jurisdictions, robbery with a threat to hurt the victim is considered a violent crime. To gain advantage through use of force.

For Example:- Defamer X has threatened to go public with his or her derogatory remarks against target Z. If Z does not provide the necessary funding, X will abandon the project. So X asks Z to help him out by giving him some cash. In this scenario, X gets blamed for the extortion.

4. Bribery:- Corruption is defined as the use of any kind of improper financial or other consideration to influence the performance of a public or legal obligation by an official or other person. A bribe is an improper or immoral reward given to influence another person's actions. It might be anything from cash to products to land.

For Example:-The engineering for a horizontal drilling project for a pipeline installation in north city has begun at DrillTech. The city's engineering department has been dragging its time on the drilling project's approval by raising many concerns. While having lunch with Sam, the city engineer, DrillTech's Vice President of hole-drilling, Mr. Smith, promises to "donate" $100,000 to Sam's children's school fund if Sam would just complete the approval procedure and enable DrillTech to go forward with the project. Since the goal is to get a local official to do something that will help the company's bottom line, this behavior constitutes bribery. DrillTech's effort to bribe a local official is a classic case of White-collar criminality. If Sam takes the money and approves the drilling project, he will have broken the law.

5. Insider trading:-In addition, this is a kind of fraud. Securities transactions, such as the sale or purchase of stocks, should never be undertaken by an individual or small group of individuals inside a corporation who have access to information that is not generally accessible to the public.

For Example: Jeff's employer, a private firm, is developing a gadget to identify certain types of life-threatening cardiac conditions. Jeff's employer accidentally sent an email to him one day while he was at work. The email said the device's release date, which had not been publicly disclosed, will arrive soon. Jeff immediately begins calling his loved ones to urge them to invest in the company's shares. By the time the product is launched, the value of the company's stock has skyrocketed, and the stock is bought out. White-collar crime in action: Jeff gave his friends and family a leg up by sharing "insider information" that allowed them to buy business shares at a discount.

2.3 Causes of White-Collar Crimes

1. In the current context of public opinion, which views corporate activities as important for successful performance even if they are unlawful, white-collar crimes must be put on the same footing as'mass disobedience' of laws. There is a'mass neutralizing' of law and order, and therefore, White-collar crime becomes accepted as a 'normal reaction' among the population.[4]

2. According to the report of the Law Commission. "The emergence and growth of white-collared and economic crimes renders enforcement of law, more difficult."

3. The globalization of the economy and the increasing sophistication of industry are two major contributors to the increase in white-collar crime.

4. White-collar criminals are sophisticated and well-educated, so they can get away with their crimes because of the leniency shown to them by the administration and the courts of the criminal justice system.

2.4   Implications Of White-Collar Crimes

White-collar crime is seen as an unethical corporate activity in today's culture, not a crime. Consequences of White-collar crime include:-

Social Damages

Disturbances in the community as a whole result. It's demoralizing and contributes to economic and social chaos. It's also a betrayal of confidence. The harm done by crimes of this kind against the White community is significant.

Financial Loss To The Public

White-collar crimes not only endanger the public but also cost money. White-collar crimes, including robberies and break-ins, result in monetary damage for society.

2.5 Factors Leading To White-Collar Crimes

White-collar crime is being fueled by four main causes, including:

Using ill-considered job incentives

Competition and recognition among workers are boosted by incentives. Incentives for strategic planning are essential.

No emphasis on ethics

A well-thought-out ethics and politics map is essential. A lack of responsibility in the workplace may result from this. When workers aren't held accountable in a certain way, they're more likely to engage in wrongdoing.

An industry-wide reputation

Individuals are more likely to engage in corrupt activity if the industry operates illegally. If people get the incorrect idea, a whole sector might be seen as complicit in criminal activity. The industry's poor reputation is a direct result of this.

A slippery slope

It's not always someone's purpose to breach the law. Sometimes people do wrongdoings that hurt their employer without even realizing it.[5]

White-Collar Crimes In India

The phrase "White-Collar crime" was originally used by Edwin Sutherland in a 1939 lecture to the American Sociological Association. The objective of the speech was to dispel the widespread notion that crime is concentrated in low-income neighborhoods and to challenge the assumption that criminals are born and raised there. "crimes committed by a respectable and high social status person in the course of his occupation," he said, was his definition of white-collar crime. Since then, he has revised his original definition of white-collar crime to read: "crimes committed by a person of the upper socio-economic class who violates the criminal law in the course of his occupational activities and Professional activities," all while challenging the stereotypical criminal and the prevailing etiological theories of crime at the time. His concept of white-collar crime centered on three factors: social status, occupation, and organization. The white-collar criminals he found were often respectable middle-aged men of high social status. He believed that White-Collar criminals tended to congregate in wealthy areas because they had widespread social acceptance there. According to Sutherland, people back then had "misleading and incorrect" ideas about criminality since they were mostly based on "biased samples" of offenders and their actions.[6]

Because there is no universally accepted definition of "White Collar Crime," criminologists have had to evaluate and interpret the idea in their own ways. As a result, several academics found it very challenging to accept "Position as primordial factor." That's why there's so much debate over what counts as "White Collar Crime" nowadays. While the term "white collar crime" may be broken down into two categories—"occupational crime" and "organizational crime"—in practice, the term refers to ten distinct sorts of offenses.

1. Bank Fraud- To take part in a fraudulent scheme designed to steal money from a bank.

2. Blackmail. - Obtaining financial compensation by threatening physical violence, damage to property, or the disclosure of private information.

3. Bribery- Bribery occurs when someone offers anything of value (money, products, services, etc.) to another person in order to sway that person's behavior, opinion, or choice.

4. Cellular Phone Fraud- Misuse, abuse, or manipulation of a mobile phone service without permission.

5. Embezzlement- The act of using money or property that has been committed to one's care for one's personal benefit.

6. Counterfeiting- Without proper permission, makes a copy or imitation of anything.

7. Forgery- When someone knowingly uses a worthless instrument to commit fraud, such a counterfeit check or a fake security.

8. Tax-Evasion- It's a common way for middle-class people to store away untraceable cash.

9. Adulteration- Adulteration of foods and drugs.

10. Professional crime - Crimes perpetrated by doctors and attorneys while on the job.

Crimes of this kind are not often perpetrated by street thugs but rather by respected members of society, such as lawyers, accountants, and public servants. Those who steal, rob, kill, rape, etc. methods of crime are distinct from more conventional types of wrongdoing such as deception, falsehood, adulteration, irregularity, and so on. These schemes are carried out in cold blood, with little regard for human life. People prefer to look the other way when socioeconomic crimes are perpetrated because they identify with those who do them and partake in the same behaviors.[7]

1. Historically, the term "white-collar crime" referred to offenses perpetrated by middle- and upper-class businesspeople during their daily activities. However, nowadays bit may mean a broad range of professional offenses perpetrated by members of any group.

2. In contrast to conventional crimes, which are associated with shame and immorality, socioeconomic offenses often affect a whole community, civilization, or even a country rather than just a single person. 

3. These crimes are distinct because their prevention "involves the protection and preservation of the general health and economic system of the entire society against the exploitation and waste."

White collar criminals come from many walks of life; they include individuals with stellar reputations for work ethic and achievement. 

1. In trade and industry:-White-collar crimes are perpetrated on purpose in India's business and industrial sectors. Large and small-scale Indian commercial groups are rife with dishonesty, and nowhere else in the world do traders amass wealth as rapidly as they do in India.

2. Black marketing:-Black marketing is harmful to both the industry's bottom line and its image. The Indian economy and the lives of ordinary people might be

severely harmed as a result. Such dealers are career criminals who should be punished accordingly.

3. Violation of foreign exchange regulations and import and export act:- Amongst businesspeople, that is the norm. Damage to the national economy is incurred, and it is done under the guise of importing and exporting products.

4. Violation of tax laws:-There is a distinct subset of the population that does not pay any federal income taxes. The amount of tax collected is merely a small

percentage of the entire revenue.

5. Corruption in government and politics:-Corruption in government and politics is a worldwide problem. Corruption exists because individuals aren't content with the wages they get from the government.

3.1 Indian Scenario

Recently, a number of corporate crimes have been exposed. The sudden dissolution of businesses is a key source of chaos in the modern world. The Bombay Stock Exchange had listed 5,651 businesses, but now just 2,750 remain. This indicates that 50% of businesses that attempt to use the stock market to raise hundreds of millions of rupees from investors fail. A lot of well-known people, like the people behind the 'Home Trade' PR ploy, managed to raise a lot of money by doing something ridiculous, and then they just disappeared. To far, these 2750 businesses have raised a total of Rs. 10,000 crore from around 11 million investors. Although the Securities and Exchange Board of India, the Reserve Bank of India, and the Department of businesses Affairs all keep tabs on trading activity, no one seems to know what became to the 2,750 or so businesses that were temporarily removed from trading. Many merchant bankers and promoters involved in these are allowed to go about their business. They are immune to punishment from market authorities and stock exchanges, and their money cannot be recovered. Only 229 of 2750 mysterious businesses have been located by authorities thus far. They are immune to punishment from market authorities and stock exchanges, and their money cannot be recovered. So far, just 229 of the 2,750 missing enterprises have been located by the authorities.[8]

3.2 Criminal liability of the Corporations

Even as corporations and other agents of globalization drive policies of states, legal structures to hold them responsible are being progressively undermined from an Indian and worldwide viewpoint. The rights of corporations are far greater than those of the public. As the new trade system takes effect, national laws are being altered to give businesses more control over human resources (including the ability to employ and dismiss at whim) and over public goods (including access to land and water). But the moment has come to limit their ability to act arbitrarily. Whether or whether a corporation may be held criminally accountable is an issue that has been discussed. The following hypotheses may provide an explanation:

3.3 Theory of Corporate Personality

This view sees companies as nothing more than groups of people working together. Here, an individual commits the crime, and their actions are subsequently attributed to the company.

3.3.1 Realist theory

These theories hold that companies have an existence apart from that of their individual shareholders. In this case, the onus is mainly on the company. For what it's worth, I find realist theory to be the more persuasive and relevant of the two. The idea that corporations may be held criminally accountable is supported, in part, by the fact that it is often the business itself, acting wrongfully via its policies or practices, that should be prosecuted and punished. Many criminal acts cannot be attributed to a single perpetrator. The damage was produced by a confluence of numerous people's actions, taken in accordance with shoddy or nonexistent business processes. However, many businesses have convoluted organizational structures that make it difficult, if not impossible, to pin down who is at blame in any given situation.

When a fine is the sole possible consequence for breaking a law, there is no debate. When a legislation gives the court the authority to impose either a fine or jail time, like above, the court will only impose the fine. For the obvious reason that a corporation, as a Juristic Person, cannot be imprisoned. When a legislation calls for a required sentence of jail in addition to a fine, the issue becomes contentious in the courts. In the case of Assistant Commissioner, Assessment-ll, Banglore&Ors. v. Velliappa Textiles Ltd &Anr. from 2003, the Supreme Court ruled that a mandatory minimum term of imprisonment could not be imposed on a corporation because it is not a physical person. The Supreme Court, in a majority ruling of 3:2, explicitly overturned the Velliapa Textiles case on this basis in 2005 in Standard Charted Bank v. Directorate of Enforcement. We hold that there is no immunity to the corporations from prosecution simply because the prosecution is in respect of offenses for which the penalty stipulated is obligatory imprisonment," K.J. Balkrishanan J. said in the majority ruling. On this issue, we disagree with the Velliappa Textiles majority.Government fraud, defined as "an unlawful act that intentionally rids the government of funds by trickery," is another kind of significant white-collar crime. Taxpayers foot the bill when government agencies fall victim to corruption. The largest losses from government fraud often occur in the areas of procurement and contractors. Identity theft occurs when a criminal commits fraud using another person's identifying information. The punishments for these criminals are severe if they are caught. Criminals often commit insurance fraud by submitting false or exaggerated claims for compensation for injuries or damage to property.[9] The use of the Postal Service or any private or commercial interstate mail carrier (Mailboxes, etc.) to conduct fraud is considered mail fraud. The criminal act of money laundering occurs when the origin and intended use of illegally obtained monies are concealed. Corruption in public office is betraying the trust placed in one by one's constituents. A state or municipal crime is committed when a public official, whether elected, appointed, hired, or an employee of a constituency of residents, adopts a favorable decision in return for promised value. When a firm, broker, analyst, or individual investor deceives investors for financial gain, they are committing securities fraud, a kind of white-collar crime. The perpetrator of tax evasion wilfully and dishonestly avoids making tax payments to the government. White collar crimes like telemarketing fraud include a perpetrator devising a scheme involving telephone interaction with the target in order to steal from them. Prize offers and contests, magazine sales, and credit card sales are the most common forms of telemarketing fraud.

The Economic Crimes and Justice Delivery System In India

In 1939, the most famous criminologist of the 20th century and also a sociologist, Edwin Hardin Sutherland, used the phrase "white collar crime" to characterize "crimes committed by people who enjoy high social status, great repute, and respectability in their profession." In this context, "in the course of business or occupation" refers to a crime perpetrated by a high-ranking company leader. White collar crime has spread over the world as a result of increased international commerce and technological development. As in any nation, white collar crime is rampant in India. White-collar crime has skyrocketed in recent decades, and it's all because to the developing world's booming economy and industrialization. There have been 6,533 instances of corruption in the previous decade, with 517 of them occurring in the last two years, as documented by the CBI, according to a research titled "The changing dynamics of white-collar crime in India," published in the Business Standard on October 22, 2016. Statistics show that 4,000 crores worth of transactions were made using counterfeit or stolen PANs. 1 Along with poverty, poor health, and other problems, white-collar crime is having a growing negative impact on India's growth. The expansion of India's economy is threatened by the increase in white-collar crime. Urgent government action is required, not only in the shape of stringent laws but also in guaranteeing their appropriate implementation, in response to these crimes. Perception has to be bolstered, particularly among the affluent and the public sector.[10]

Many millions of dollars are lost every year due to white collar crime. These companies raise prices to offset the loss, but this usually results in fewer customers purchasing the goods. This is in accordance with the law of demand, which holds that, holding everything else constant, a higher price results in lower demand and a lower price in more demand. Because of the company's loss, salary cuts are being implemented. The corporation often cuts many workers. Companies are having trouble paying back their debts. This is making it harder for individuals to get credit. In India, white-collar crime has been on the increase owing to avarice, rivalry, and a deficiency of anti-crime legislation. Many people's material and psychological needs go unmet because they are living below the poverty line. Therefore, those living in poverty may resort to white-collar crime to achieve their ends. Since the advent of the internet and the digital world, criminals have been emboldened to conduct more crimes and hide in plain sight anywhere in the globe, since major financial transactions can now be performed in a matter of seconds and communication with persons on the other side of the planet can now be accomplished in a matter of minutes. Furthermore, legal loopholes prevent the perpetrator of a white-collar crime from being held accountable even after they have been captured.

4.1 What Sets White-Collar Crime Apart From Economic Offense:

The term "white-collar crime" is used to describe the nonviolent, financially motivated criminal acts of corporate and government professionals. Alternatively, economic crimes include some kind of money exchange. These violations occur within the course of a business transaction. While the phrase "economic offences" has been defined in certain countries, such the United States, a clear and precise definition is still missing in India. This makes it hard to categorize criminal acts.

4.2 The Rise Of Economic And White-Collar Crime

White Collar Crime In Ancient India: According to some, criminal activity has been around ever since humans established permanent settlements. There are many types of crime, and some of them have taken on new forms as our civilization has progressed. An ancient Vedic literature suggests that the concept of white-collar crime has been around since the beginning of human history.

Crime Of Bribery: According to Narada, it is bribery if a man offers anything out of fear, anger, want, sadness, in jest or by mistake, due to the dishonest behavior of a juvenile, or while under the influence of alcohol. Once, Yagnavalkya recommended that the monarch, as the highest authority, eliminate the corrupt officials and promote the trustworthy ones. He continues by saying that extortionists will have their belongings taken away from them and sent to an unknown location. Kautilya, in his Arthashastra, predicts that the actions of people in power would be monitored, and that those responsible for wrongdoing will be exposed and punished.

Health: They have always cared deeply for the well-being of the people. To stop the spread of disease, the ancients also outlawed the sale of dog meat. Yajnavalkya, Vijnaneswara, and Kautilya all recommended different penalties for persons who sell or buy dog meat. Ashoka was the one who first started building hospitals for people and animals with the intention of improving public health. Ashoka forbids the consumption of meat and the slaughter of birds for human consumption in his decrees.[11]

Use Of False Weights In Stores: If we want to keep the economy on track, we need to steer clear of bad corporate practices. Merchants would often inflate prices by using fictional weights and measurements to boost sales in the past. Kautilya suggests stationing a market supervisor there to deter merchants from resorting to such dishonest methods of doing business. Kautilya and Yajnavalkya advocated a fee for businesspeople that engage in unethical behavior.

Counterfit Coins: For the first time, Indians utilized coins as a medium of exchange. The guild was responsible for managing all finances in ancient times. Coins of silver, gold, and copper were struck at government mints. Kautilya passed a legislation that made it a crime to circulate fake coins. He called fake currency "Nanaka" and its creators "Kutarupa Kara."

Growth In Modern Era: India's fast industrialisation after WWI (1914-1919) exacerbated existing social divisions. There were the capitalists, sometimes known as the bourgeoisie, who held most of the means of production, and the proletariat, or factory workers. The harsh market circumstances that followed the rapidly expanding economy led to the social exclusion of the proletarian class. Crime rose as a result of rising competitiveness and the pursuit of monopolistic power. The origin of white-collar crime may be traced back to this era. These illicit activities gained popularity when the nation was focused with the liberation movement and waging wars, and they pose a danger to the growth of the Indian economy.

Economic Offence:The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) indicates that this crime type first appeared in the early 2000s and has subsequently increased substantially. During this time period, many con artists, banks, chit funds, and others engaged in a wide variety of fraudulent financial activities. Our attention will be directed on the criminal acts and methods used during the years of 2014 and 2018. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) has documented the following economic crimes in recent years:

➢ In 2014, there were 1,42,560 cases filed.

➢ In 2015, there were 1,50,170 cases filed.

➢ In 2016, a total of 1,43,524 cases were filed.

➢ In 2017, a total of 1,48,972 cases were filed.

➢ In 2018, there were 1,56,268 cases filed.

➢ In 2019, there were 1,65,782 cases filed.

According to the data shown above, Economic Offenses are not trivial nor insignificant. The NCRB has received tens of thousands of reports of criminal activity, indicating that the scale and seriousness of these offenses is unprecedented. Take 2016 as an example since it has the fewest instances of scams recorded under Economic Offence in India out of the five years (of the above data) and because it serves as the base year (roughly). In that year, the total cash lost to fraud was around Rs.143,524,000, while the scam amount was just under Rs.10,000. Now that we're talking about numbers in crores, it's important to note that this sum is extremely near to the District Budget (about).[12]

Conclusion

Corporations have been given a free hand by governments across the globe to exploit natural and communal resources, while ordinary people have had their access to these resources restricted. In India, for instance, corporations in Eloor, Kodaikanal, and Gujarat have not only depleted local water supplies and ruined agricultural land, but they have also deprived locals of their livelihoods and harmed their health. Disasters comparable to the one in Bhopal have struck all of these cities. The lack of access to clean, safe drinking water was identified as a critical issue in each of these regions. There has been an uptick in the number of incidents where employees have been accused of falsifying financial records or deceiving clients. White-collar crime in Indian corporations is at an all-time high, according to a poll by Ernst & Young. Companies either contaminate the water supply to the point where it is unusable, or they overexploit the resource to the point where the water table drops or the wells dry up. A perfect example would be the Coco-Cola bottling facility in Kerala, which extracts an excessive quantity of water from the earth, causing the water level to drop dramatically and resulting in a water shortage in the surrounding villages. It becomes very difficult to both notice and report such crimes, and this is only one of several challenges in this area. A street crime may result in a dead body, a home invasion, or a vehicle theft. These isolated incidents are swiftly reported to the police and documented by them. Many victims of white-collar crimes are unaware that they have been targeted, and the actions that transpired were not necessarily in the order that one would expect. It's not as easy to compare white-collar crime to street crime because it's not as easy to neatly discover, tabulate, and report. "white collar crimes investigators start with a suspected con artist and their question is, what did he or she do and we can prove this?" Only those in a position to do so conduct occupational crimes, such as Medicaid fraud, which is often only perpetrated by doctors, and bank embezzlement, which is only performed by personnel in a position of trust in a financial institution. Criminals in the workplace have the same goal as common criminals: easy money with little effort.

References

1. ‘Report on White-collar Crimes’ by International Monetary Fund
2. Centers-SARDAR PATEL University OF POLICE, SECURITY and criminal justice, jodhpur. (n.d.). Retrieved March 27, 2021, from 
https://policeuniversity.ac.in/centers.php?id=4
3. Chaubey, K.R. (2013). Changing Dimensions of Economic Crime in India, Retrieved April 10, 2021, from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/241329
4. Garg, Vikas ‘Criminal liability of corporate bodies’.
5. Mishra R., (2016) "Criminal Psychology," Sunit Enterprises
6.  Singh, M. (2014). Enforcement of law relating to white collar crimes A study with reference to the state of Punjab, Retrieved April 10, 2021, from 
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/54474
7. The changing dynamics of white-collar crimes in India (2016, October 22), Business Standard. Retrieved from 
https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/thechanging-dynamics-of-white-collar-crimes-in-india-116102200032_1.html
8. The growing challenge of economic offences in India (2020, October 7), Hindustan Times. Retrieved March 27, 2021, from 
https://www.hindustantimes.com/indianews/the-growing-challenge-of-economic-offences-in-india/storyCC1uaeBv1vQCuFKd3fkVtL.html
9. White-Collar crime - OVERVIEW, TYPES, CLASSIFICATIONS. (2020, August 26). Retrieved from 
https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/finance/white-collarcrime/
10.   White-collar crimes- (Talk delivered in the 'DST Programme on Forensic
End-notes
1. ‘Report on White-collar Crimes’ by International Monetary Fund
2. ‘White-collar crimes- (Talk delivered in the 'DST Programme on Forensic
3. Ahmad, Siddique, Criminology — Problems perspectives, Eastern Book Co., Fourth edition. . Ram Ahuja, (2000). Criminology, Rawat Publications.
4. Garg, Vikas ‘Criminal liability of corporate bodies’.
5. Godwin, Kunda ‘Conference report on white collar crimes’.
6. Williams, F. P., (2017) "Criminology Theory," Andersen Publication
7.  The International Monetary Fund's "Report on White-Collar Crimes"
8. Vikas Garg's "Criminal Liability of Corporate Bodies"
9. The Indian Penal Code, 30th version, 2006, Wadhwa, Ratanlal&Dhirajlal
10. Dr. Krishna Pal Malik, Penology ,victimology & Correctional Administration in India ,
11. Prof.N.V.Paranjape , Criminology and Penology ,(Central law Publication ,Allahabad,7th edn.,2005).
12. Ishan Bakshi. “The Changing Dynamics of White-Collar Crimes in India.” BUSINESS STANDARD (Aug 24, 2022),
https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/the-changing-dynamics-of-white-collar-crimes-in-india116102200032_1.html