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Quartz and Feldspar deposits are scattered extensively in Ajmer district. There are number of economically viable working mines of Quartz and Feldspar in Beawar, Masuda, Nasirabad, Kekri, Sarwar and Kishangarh tehsils. The promising areas of Jawaja group, Makrera-Rajgarh group and Tilora-Piproli group of mines are the most important feldspar producing areas where good quality feldspar is being mined. The feldspar deposits of Ajmer district are largely potash bearing. Being rich in Alkalis (K2O+Na2O in the range of 11-14%) and having lower Fe2O3 percentage (less than 0.10%), the minerals (Quartz and Feldspar) from this region, are being extensively Mined, Processed and Transported to different end users, in domestic & international market. Quartz and feldspar (Granules & Powder) are used in various industries like ceramic, glass, foundry, refractory, cosmetics, electrical, abrasive and paints etc. Domestic consumers include Saint-Gobain Glass, Kajaria Ceramics, Liberty Whiteware, SS & Jaipur Glass Potteries, Bharat Potteries, Hindustan National Glass India Ltd., etc. Cement Industries in Rajasthan, procure B grade Feldspar in lumps form (20-100 mm), from the mines of Ajmer District. Quartz (A & B Grade), finds its use in Glass Industries and Ferro alloy Industries. Quartz (C-grade) is used as Ramming Mass. Feldspar minerals are primarily used in industrial applications for their alumina and alkali content. Feldspar is being exported in Lumps as well as Powder form, to countries such as Vietnam, Indonesia, China, Iran, Bangladesh and Turkey. Pulverized Quartz is being exported to Malaysia and some of the other South-Eastern Asian Countries.

1. Locational analysis of quartz and feldspar pulverizing mills in Ajmer district. 2. To identify major industrial use of quartz and feldspar powder of Ajmer district.

Luanna C. Moura, Flávio P. André, Hayla Miceli, Reiner Neumann & Luis Marcelo Tavares (2019) in their research paper highlighted the important applications of quartz and feldspar minerals extracted from pegmatites, granites and river sands. They also demonstrated different methods for its extraction which later transforms into required products using dry-earth magnetic separation strategies.
Feathers, J. K., Evans, M., Stratford, D. J., & De la Peña, P. (2020). In this research article luminescence dating is used to identify major quartz and feldspar sites in Pittsburg Industrial Area. Some of the sites identified dated back to Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Mwulu’s Cave region. It was found out that the grain of feldspar is of premium quality and the site has large potential for mining.
Martin, D., & Grodach, C. (2022). This research paper highlights the cultural manufacturers located in the urban areas and in the suburbs. The industries are fast developing and will grow more rapidly as the demand will rise. Hence, author suggest the need of urban cultural policy which merges with the industrial development policy to have a good working environment and sustainable development of industries. 

 Geology of Ajmer District

Geologically, Ajmer district is occupied by the Bhilwara and Delhi Super-groups which have been further divided into several groups and formations. The rocks of Bhilwara Super-group extend from Deyi in the north-east through Kishangarh to Sarwar area underlying the Marwar plains and comprise meta-sedimentary sequences with associated magnetic complex and igneous rocks.

Bhilwara Supergroup comprises Metapelites, Quartzites, Conglomerates, Marble, Calc-silicate rock, Calc-schist, Calc-gneisses, Mica-schist, Feldspathised mica-schist, Granites, Dolomites etc. Delhi Supergroup comprises dominantly Quartzite, Biotite-schist, Calc-schist, Calc-gneisses, Marble, Granites etc.

These ridges are occupied by Quartzite in general and soft rocks such as Biotite-schist and Gneisses occupy slopes and valleys. To the south-east of Aravali range in Ajmer lies the plain occupied by pre Aravali Gneisses. Much of the area of Kishangarh, Nasirabad and Kekri is covered by alluvium with practically meagre topographic dissimilarities except a few hillocks of Quartzite and mounds occupied by Granites, Epidiorites and Gneisses. Similarly on the western side of hill range around Peesangan and Govindgarh, topography is more or less plain with some low mounds occupied by granite and gneisses in general.

Source: Mines & Geology Department, Ajmer (Computed by Author)

Fig. 1: Geological Map of Ajmer District
Table 1: Stratigraphic Set-Up of Rocks in Ajmer District Supergroup

Super-Group	Group	Formation
Delhi	Recent to Sub-Recent	Alluvium and wind blown sand Sub-Recent
	Intrusion (Erinpura Granite)	Sendra-Ambaji Granite Gneiss and Migamatite
	Kumbhalgarh	Calc-schist, Calc-gneiss marble, Garnet, Biotite-schist,Quartzite, Mica-schist
	Ajabgarh	Calc-schist, Calc-gneiss, Mica-schist and Marble
	Alwar	Metaconglomerate Quartzite Mica Schist
Bhilwara	Sawar	Dolomite, Marble, Quartzite, Garnetferous, mica-schist
	Mangalwar Complex	Migmatite, Gneisses, Mica-schist, Para-amphibolite, impure marble
	Sandmata Complex	Para-gneiss, Migmatite, Pyroxenegranulite, Marble, Ultramafics

Source: Geological Survey of India. Government of India.

The information about the number of pulverizing mills in different industrial areas were obtained by physical survey of industrial areas, directories of Laghu Udhyog Sanghs, allotments list of RIICO industrial areas, District industrial center Ajmer and sub-district industrial centers at Beawar and Kishangarh. The industrial units were categorized for their locations in different tehsils of Ajmer district. The maps were prepared using QGIS software and ERDAS IMAGINE. For pin point location the geo-coordinates were taken from primary field surveys using GPS and layout plans were geo-referenced and modified accordingly in QGIS. Satellite images taken by various LANDSAT satellites at different time periods provided by Google Pro were analyzed for spatio-temporal analysis of industrial area.

Production and Distribution of Quartz in Ajmer District

Quartz is quarried from pegmatite as well as quartz veins. Ajmer district has huge reserves of quartz mineral. Major mining areas in different tehsils of Ajmer are summarized in table 2 and yearly production is shown in Table 3 below.

Table 2: Tehsil-Wise List of Villages of Ajmer District Producing Quartz

S. No.	Name of Tehsil	Villages Having Mining Leases of Quartz
1	Kishangarh	Silora, Tihri, Gurjarwara, Bandara Sindri, Akodia, Dadiya, Arain, Buwara, Dasook, Dand, Katsura, Rari
2	Nasirabad	Dhal, Loharwara, Ganeshpura, Rajgarh, Sanod, Bagsuri, Bewanja, Ramsar, Kurari, Banewada, Kesarpura, Aashapura, Chat, Tilana, Tiharai, Data, Modi, Rasulpura, Bhatiyani
3	Beawar	Lalpura-Dhanar, Surariya, Bhambhipura, Kalinger, Lasariya, Kalidanti, Neemarikhera, Jawaja, Daulatpura, Utami, Pakhriyawas, Pipalbawari
4	Masuda	Madhogarh, Jhamola, Kanakhera, Kashipura, Sarniya, Devipura, Kharwa, Gopalsagar, Nayagaon, Shyamgarh, Nadi, Jaliya II
5	Sarwar	Borada, Godiyana, Devariya, Sawar, Bawari, Jaitpura
6	Peesangan	Liri, Lamana, Mangliyawas, Makrera

Source: Lease directory of Ajmer, Mines and Geology Department, Ajmer
Table 3: Yearly Production of Quartz in Ajmer District From (2015- 2021)

Financial Year	Leases (In No.)	Area (In Hectare)	Production (In metric tonne)	Sale Value (In Rupees)	Revenue (In Rupees)	Employment (In No.)
2015-16	153	1133.550	93,436	19621602	8664819	1500
2016-17	161	1083.200	141,137	53632060	8933555	1310
2017-18	176	1145.088	90,203	36081200	13278700	1360
2018-19	181	1167.58	96703	38681200	11106500	1411
2019-20	264	1430.15	609311	155986466	26050631	693
2020-21	66	626.25	44959	24727450	2963196	95
2021-22	63	613.25	17935	9864250	4748150	95

Source: Mineral Statistics reports 2015-2021, Department of Mines & Geology, Udaipur

Data Source: Mines and Geology Department, Ajmer

Figure 2: Mining Areas of Quartz in Ajmer District

Production and Distribution of Feldspar in Ajmer District

The word ‘Feldspar’ derived from German word ‘feldspat’. The word Feld means field and Spat (English spar = minerals) means a rock that does not contain ore. Feldspar consists a large group of rock forming tecto-silicate minerals distinguished by the presence of alumina and silica in their chemistry. These are one of the most abundant group of minerals in the earth's crust forming about 60% of terrestrial rocks.

1. Rajasthan is a leading producer of feldspar in the country. Major producing districts are Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu and Udaipur. Pegmatites are the main source of feldspar. Pegmatite belt is extended about 110 Km in Ajmer district from north-east to south-west direction.

2. Large deposits of good quality of potash feldspar are found in Ajmer district. Geologically Jawaja group, Makrera-Rajgarh group and Tilora-Piproli group are the promising mining groups of potash feldspar. Main deposit of feldspar found in Kishangarh, Nasirabad, Masuda, Beawar, Peesangan, Kekri and Sarwar tehsils of Ajmer district.

Source: Mines and Geology Department, Ajmer
Figure 3: Varieties of Feldspar Mineral Available In Ajmer District

Data Source: Mines and Geology Department, Ajmer
Figure 4: Feldspar Mining Areas In Ajmer District
Table 4: Tehsil-Wise List Of Villages Of Ajmer District Producing Feldspar

S. No.	Tehsil	Villages Having Mining Leases Of Feldspar
1.	Kishangarh	Silora, Tihri, Gurjarwara, Chausal, Bandara Sindri, Pandarwara, Brijpura, Akodia, Dadiya
2.	Nasirabad	Dhal, Rajgarh, Sanod, Bagsuri, Bewanja, Ramsar, Bubaniya, Kurari, Banewadi, Minyani, Kesarpura, Nijampura, Piproli, Chandsen, Aashapura, Chat, Tilana, Gaderi, Jharwasa
3.	Beawar	Lalpura, Dharwan, Surariya, Bhambhipura, Kalinger, Lakhina, Lasariya, Aanakhera, Jaliyawasrupa, Jaitgarh, Bamaniya, Kalidanti, Naikhurd, Suhawa, Bayala, Sarmaliya, Kalakhera, Rawatmal, Aasan
4.	Masuda	Madhogarh, Jhamola, Kalaheri, Kanakhera, Kashipura, Sarniya, Devipura, Kharwa, Kanpura, Gopalsagar, Ranisagar, Nayagaon, Amarpura, Shyamgarh, Nadi, Jaliya II
5.	Kekri	Kaleda, Junia, Devkhedi, Rampura, Ganeshpura, Ugai, Kali Talai Ka Khera
6.	Sarwar	Borada, Godiyana, Bawari, Devariya, Manoharpura, Dantri, Sarwar, Laxmipura, Banthali, Bisundani
7.	Peesangan	Nagelav, Liri, Gangara-Liri, Lamana, Mangliyawas, Makrera, Amratpura, Daulatpura, Richmalia
8.	Bhinay	Kishanpura, Amargarh, Chanwandiya, Swaipura, Mathaniya, Paranga
9.	Ajmer	Balwanta, Boraj, Danta, Gudas

Source: Mineral Directory of Ajmer, 2021
 

Figure 5: (A) Active Feldspar Mine And

(B) Abandoned Feldspar Mine In Gopal Sagar (Masuda Tehsil)

Uses of Quartz

In Ajmer district quartz is used mainly in glass, foundry, ferro-alloy and refractory industries and also as building materials. According to its suitability for different purposes it may be named as building sand, paving sand, moulding or foundry sand, refractory or furnace sand, filter sand, glass sand and grinding and polishing sand.

Glass Industry

High purity quartz (above 99% purity) is mainly used in manufacturing of different types of glasses i.e. glass containers, bottles, amber glass containers, clear flint glass, flat plate glass, specialty glass, fiber glass etc. Almost 50% of glass manufacturing belongs to container glass. Most of the glass industries are located in Gujarat, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru and Hyderabad. Glass manufacturing pulverized quartz must be uniform in chemical composition, size and shape of grains. Uniformity of grains promotes even melting in the glass tank.

Ceramic Industry

Quartz is used in manufacturing of ceramic tiles, sanitary ware, crockery ware, pottery ware etc. Ceramic white ware contains about 40% silica besides other constituents.

Composite Quartz Slabs

Engineered quartz makes excellent counter tops for kitchen and washroom spaces. Engineered quartz slabs are in high demand world-wide due to its high impact resistance, durability and esthetic appearance.

Quartz as an Abrasive

Due to high hardness quality quartz is an excellent abrasive material hence used for sand blasting, scoring, cleansers, grinding media and grit for sanding and sawing.

Quartz as Foundry Sand

Due to high resistance capacity of both chemical and heat, quartz is used as foundry sand. Refractory bricks are often made of quartz sand because of its high heat resistance. It is also used as a flux in the smelting of metals. Silica content of 85% is used in iron casting. In steel foundries silica content should be at least 95% Quartz powder is particularly used in the steel foundry in dressing for moulds and cores and also as an essential ingredient in the molding sand mixtures. For the manufacturing of refractory bricks silica mineral should be free from alumino-silicates.

Petroleum Industry

Quartz sand has a high resistance to be crushed. In the petroleum industry sand slurries are forced down into oil and gas wells under very high pressure in a process known as hydraulic fracturing. High pressure fractures the reservoir rocks and the sandy slurry injects into the fractures. The durable sand grains hold the fracture open after the pressure is released. The open fracture facilitates the flow of natural gas into the well bore.

Quartz Crystals

One of the most amazing properties of quartz is the ability of its crystals to vibrate at a precise frequency. These frequencies are so precise that quartz crystals can be used to make extremely accurate time keeping instruments and equipments that can transmit radio and television signals with precise and stable frequencies. Quartz crystals are used to make oscillators for watches, clocks, radios, television, electronic games, computers, cell phones, electronic metres and GPS equipments. A wide range of uses have also been developed for optical grade quartz crystals. These are used to make specialised lenses, windows and filters used in lasers, microscope, telescopes, electronic sensors and scientific instruments. Big pieces are used in making mortars and pastels for laboratory use. Agate cut into requisite shapes is also used as fulcrum of scientific balances and in making edges of planes and bearing of precision instruments.

Quartz as a Gemstone

Quartz makes an excellent gemstone. It is hard, durable and usually accepts a brilliant polish. Popular varieties of quartz that are widely used as gems include amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, aventurine, agate and jasper. The different cryptocrystalline varieties of transparent and translucent chalcedony are valued as semi-precious stones and are carved out into a variety of ornaments and used for making different ornamental wares or articles of decoration. Agate pieces after cutting and polishing are sold as semi-precious stones.

Other Uses of Quartz

Quartz powder is used as filler in the manufacturing of rubber, paint and putty. Screened and washed, carefully sized quartz grains are used as filter media and roofing granules. Quartz grains are also used in creation of golf courses, volleyball courts, baseball fields, children's sandboxes and beaches.

Uses of Feldspar

Feldspar is a common raw material used in industrial applications for that alumina and alkali content. It is used mainly in ceramic, glass and cement industries. Minor quantity of feldspar is consumed by refractory, abrasive, electrode, coal washing and cosmetic industries. It is also used as functional filler in paint, plastic, rubber and adhesive industries. It is also used in the manufacturing of artificial teeth, fertilizer and white cement. Certain varieties of feldspar are used as semi-precious stones.

Ceramic Industry

In ceramic industry (tiles, sanitary ware, pottery and tableware) feldspar is the second most important ingredient in ceramic after clay and is used as a fluxing agent which facilitates softening, melting and wetting of other batch constituents. It also improves the strength, toughness and durability of the ceramic body and cements the crystalline phase of other ingredients.

Glass Industry

Feldspar is an important ingredient in the manufacturing of glass. It acts as a fluxing agent which facilitates lowering the glass batch melting temperature and cuts production cost. Alumina content of feldspar improve the chemical durability of glass and its physical resistance to scratching, bending, breaking, chemical corrosion and thermal shock. Feldspar content of different glass ranges from 0.05% (flat glass) to 18% (insulation fiberglass).

Abrasive

Plagioclase feldspar is used as a mild abrasive material for incorporation in scouring powders. Ground feldspar is used as non-skid dusting agent for flooring.

Use in Refractory Industry

Feldspar is used in the manufacturing of acid proof refractory bricks.

Welding Electrode Industry

Feldspar is used in welding electrode industry as a flux which acts as an arc stabilizer and helps in weld pool protection.

Fillers and Extenders

Feldspar has an excellent quality of filler due to its distinguished properties such as good dispersibility, chemical inertness, stable pH, low free silica content and 89% to 95% brightness, high resistance to abrasion, low viscosity at high pigment loading, resistant to frosting, resistance to staining etc. make its increasing demand in paint, plastic and rubber industries.

Enamel Frits and Glaze

Feldspar assures absence of defects and brings the neatness to the end-product e.g. enamel frit, ceramic glaze, ceramic tile glaze, sanitary ware, tableware, electrical porcelain and giftware.

Gemstones

Several popular gemstones are feldspar minerals. These include moonstone, sunstone, labradorite, amazonite and spectrolite.

Other Uses

In earth sciences and archeology, feldspar is used for Potassium – Argon (K- Ar) dating and luminescence dating.

Ajmer district has risen as a hub of quartz and feldspar pulverizing industry due to the entrepreneur skills, availability of raw materials, transportation facility. Ball mill units have been established in the periphery of Beawar, Kishangarh, Nasirabad, Sarwar, Kekri cities, with the help of RIICO and private organizations. The pulverization industry of Ajmer district is more than 50 years old. The industry flourished here and expended in neighboring districts and other parts of Rajasthan. Quartz and feldspar pulverizing industry initially developed in RIICO industrial areas of Beawar. Later on it expands to peripheral areas of Beawar. In last decade new clusters of pulverizing units developed in Kishangarh, Nasirabad, Sarwar, Kekri tehsils of Ajmer district. Main clusters of quartz and feldspar pulverizing units are RIICO industrial areas of Beawar, Bewanja, Silora and Private industrial areas of Peeplaj, Ranisagar, Udaipurkalan. These clusters of quartz and feldspar mineral pulverizing units have established in the proximity of mineral mining areas and along National/ State Highways. On the basis of primary survey, secondary data sources and spatio-temporal analysis of the industrial areas we concluded that the quartz and feldspar pulverizing industry of Ajmer district has grown rapidly in last 15 years. Mineral pulverizing clusters of Thikrana Gujaran, Udaipurkalan, Sarwar and Kanakhera are developed in last 5-10 years. Other pre-existing areas also expended in last decade. The number of pulverizing units increased from 250 to 916 in last 15 years. Quartz and feldspar pulverizing units are just doing the job of mineral processing. Pulverized mineral is being consumed elsewhere. It is ironical that the district is bearing environment and health hazards of the industry for minimal revenue share, while consumer industries of mineral powder are ripping the fruits of socioeconomic benefits. Majority of these units are located outside the state. The Government of Rajasthan has taken several steps for the development of the mineral pulverizing industry. For sustainable growth and development several steps are required. Establishment of ceramic based industries, mineral export consortium, quality analyzing lab, innovation centers, skill development centers and marketing centers will strengthen the industry. The future structure of the industry will be decided by the balance between the Government regulations for the sustainable mining activities, adoption of environment protection and health safety measures, technological advancements and development of consumer industries.

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