Downs (1957) looked at how voters react to regional heterogeneity in electoral dynamics in the research. The researcher wanted to know if variations in average turnout in a particular election have an impact on voters' choice to vote. The problem encounter was that each election was often a simultaneous move game for voters, and the topics that voters examine vary substantially from one election to the next. For every election, there was minimal exogenous variation to influence voter behaviour, and the comparisons between elections are of little use. Voters' opinions about the competitive election environment should be perturbed at random and compared. Despite the fact that this is impossible in actuality, the identification framework utilizes approximate this experiment.

Rossi, (1959)examined that the prominence of mentalist notions in voting research hasn't silenced dissenters. "Voters who strongly connect with the Republican party exhibit a significant predisposition to vote for that party," according to mentalist interpretations of voting behaviour.

Skinner, (1972)stated that a researcher's ability to assess genuine "voting behaviour" in democratic elections is limited by the fact that official votes are always cast in secret. It's not enough for electoral analysts to depend on poll respondents' statements about their voting habits and how they're influenced by their environment. Such reports may be impacted by factors other than the voting behaviour they pretend to reflect, especially in the interview situation, where empirical survey data is frequently obtained. Interviewers for surveys are taught to be as inconspicuous as possible when listening to the verbal reports of participants. Even though the interviewer has control over the verbal replies of survey participants, they are not particularly reinforced in one direction or another, nor are they paid for participating in the survey (by monetary compensation). Voters' verbal responses can be believed to correctly reflect their actual voting behaviour and the numerous contextual elements that influence it.

Wahlke (1979) focused on political science in general on mental factors, whether dependent or independent, was questioned in order to support this position. "Obedience to authority" studies were the best example of correlations between overt conduct and underlying attitudes being essentially nonexistent in psychological trials in which the overt behaviour could be examined without the underlying attitudes.

Noelle Neumann, (1984)said that the effects of voting are handed down by individuals within a voter's social circle who are close enough to encourage or penalize voting behaviour without waiting around for long periods of time (like family, friends, peers, co-workers, campaign workers, neighbors, etc.). Reinforcing factors may come from more distant sources, such as friends and family. One might consider of dominating "climates" or fads of popular opinion, which are rendered relevant to the individual voter by the mass media. In certain conditions, it is possible to predict the likelihood of (certain definable) mass popular support or rejection of a given policy.

Lamal & Greenspoon, (1992)the degree of measurement utilized in this study is a second warning comment. Environmental factors are only relevant inasmuch as they are reflected in voters' verbal testimony, and voting decisions are often assessed from the standpoint of the individual voter. Economic crises, wars, revolutions, and other macro-level societal changes might all be easily ignored in such a study. Ideally, voting behaviour analysis would adopt a micro- and macro-level approach to the voter, capturing both micro- and macro-contingencies and investigating functionally connected behaviours at the individual and population levels. The metacontingencies have been studied previously, and some insights have been gained.

Visser, (1994)examined that the ordinary people are assumed to be rational in their political choices, according to normative principles that have dominated voting studies for many years. The earliest psychological examinations of election behaviour, on the other hand, swiftly dispelled this positive image, replacing it with a semi-rational approach to voting based on a set of mental concepts that remained more or less consistent across time (political beliefs, attitudes, values, so on.) However, despite the fact that political scientists differ on the exact type and quantity of these mental dispositions, semi-rational models have persisted to the present day despite their widespread use.

Visser, M. (1996)Voting for a political party in an election has tremendous societal repercussions, but it has received little attention from a behaviour analytical perspective due to the strong mentalistic effects that have been seen in electoral studies. A behavioural study of voting is presented in this paper, and the results of the analysis are applied to data from a Dutch election poll to evaluate a derived behavioural model. It has been established that such an examination would be both philosophically and practically beneficial to the parties involved.

Blais (2000)The data is varied as to whether or not voters are actually driven purely by instrumental concerns, but it is evident that the basic models above cannot help us forecast the outcome of any given election. To address this, some theories imply that voting is free, while others claim that voting has a positive effect on the individual's self-worth. The evident physical expense of voting must be offset in both circumstances by some non-instrumental advantage.

Sharma, K. (2012)The purpose of the research was to investigate the utility of political advertising in the context of India. The research looked on people's perceptions of the importance of political advertising in influencing voting behaviour in terms of information gathering and appraisal, voting attitudes, and voting decisions. Furthermore, it was anticipated that one's level of participation with voting decisions influences one's judgments of the importance of political advertising. The study has found that very little evidence to support the relevance of employing political advertising at the scale that various political parties in India were done.

Key, J. V. (2013) considered the evidence for the action of operant conditioning principles was discovered in a compact model of voting behaviour that included the voter's parents and spouse as major components, which was the study's main discovery. While the reinforcers, punishers, and models provided by proximal individuals appear to have a considerable impact on consistency of voting behaviour, it appears that the direction of voting behaviour is significantly influenced by the voting choices of the proximal individuals around the voter. There are two limitations to this finding, however.First and foremost, because survey research lacks the controlled character of experimental investigations, causal correlations between variables must be evaluated with care in the absence of experimental evidence. In spite of the fact that the relatively simple behavioural model used in this paper could account for two out of every three votes, future refinements should aim to improve on this figure by incorporating more aspects into the behaviour analysis, such as the influence of people close to the voter (such as family and friends), the role of campaigns and the media in influencing voting behaviour, and the role of electoral actual issues. It may be feasible to explain practically all of the variety in voting choices by closely monitoring the voting behaviour of the whole reinforcing verbal community as well as relevant antecedent factors.

Hazarak, B. (2015)The term "voting" is one of the most often used in today's democratic era. Democracy has become a general term because to its growing popularity in both theory and practice. Everyone in a democratic society uses the term "voting" to express their views on government choices, policies, and programming from various political parties as well as the qualifications of candidates running for public office in constantly developing democratic systems.The study of the elements influencing electoral behaviour is an extremely significant issue of empirical research that should be recognized. Man is a reasonable creature when it comes to his intellectual behaviour; nevertheless, when it comes to his economic and political behaviour, he is not nearly so logical. One of the most startling research results of an empirical analysis examines the determinants of voting behaviour would be that irrational factors and pressure groups invoking religious communities’ factors, the influence of money, a leader's charismatic personality, and other unfair forces have a substantial impact on the minds of voters. The major purpose of this research is to increase understanding of Indian voting behaviour and to discover the factors that impact voting behaviour in India. The results of this study haveutilized to educate politicians and individuals in India about voting behaviour.

Morton (2015)Voters' strategic answers to exit poll findings have been investigated, but their responses to actual turnout in the same election have largely gone unexamined. Numerous studies in economics, philosophy, and political science have all attempted to shed light on the vexing topic of why people vote. Better theoretical models or data from an experimental context have dominated the literature. Voter participation has been influenced by a variety of factors, including social image, population size and stability, historical turnout and habit development, and the level of competition in previous elections, among many others.

Rathaur, M. (2018)Unlike most of its neighbors and beyond, India has avoided coups and revolutions in order to change governments, preferring to do it through the "ballot" rather than the "bullet." It is reason for concern when some Western democracies are revealed to have a "democratic deficit." The country's steadily increasing voter turnout in national, regional, and municipal elections reflects trust in the democratic process. The strong political participation of Indian citizens throughout elections resulted in the election and rejection of administrations, thereby legitimizing the country's representative democratic system. Since the late twentieth century, Indian elections and voter engagement have seen a significant transformation, notably following the 73rd and 74th Amendments, which granted voting rights to individuals at the grassroots level and introduced women's seat reservations.Consequently, the terms electoral democracy and participatory democracy have acquired new connotations, and the voting habits of the Indian populace are having an influence on the Indian democratic system, emphasizing both its virtues and its flaws as a result of their impact. New factors are now influencing voting behaviour in addition to the traditional variables that have influenced voting behaviour in the past, such as religious affiliations, caste and community, language proficiency, money, physical power, ideology, political wave, and etc. Religion, caste, and community are still important factors in voting behaviour. There are a number of other factors that have had an impact on voting behaviour throughout the previous decade. Aside from that, important changes in the country's election process and political parties have been foreshadowed by the Election Commission's role and a few electoral reforms. The constitutionally formed independent multimember electoral commission in India has taken an "active" role in ensuring "free and fair elections." The development, destruction, and sway of public opinion are all influenced by audio-visual media. This article focuses on election issues and changes in voter behaviour that have been seen in the country, rather than on the country's political culture in general.

Khalil, U., Mookerjee, S., & Tierney, R. (2019) By using staggered structure of the Indian General Elections, where voting occurs over several weeks, the study how geographic heterogeneity in election dynamics influences future voter turnout. The effect of a particular phase's average voter turnout on the turnout of a following phase by using a quasi-random assignment of constituencies to electoral phases at every election. Two unique instrumental variables are used to cope with endogeneity problems in the estimate of social interactions: Prior to the implementation of staggered voting, each precinct's historical average turnout was calculated by counting the number of voters who cast ballots at each polling place. An increase in turnout of one percentage point (pp) decreases the turnout of succeeding phases by between 0.3 and 0.5 percentage points (pp). There has been zero influence on voter participation in the present phase, any constituencies in the same phase, or any future phases of the same election, according to falsification testing. The researcher conclude that the statistics strongly support an ethical voting model, in which each agent acts as though he or she is a role model for the rest of the population and strives to maximize societal welfare.

Voting Behaviour

Voting behaviour refers to the way individuals cast their ballots, as well as the variables that impact them. It illustrates what elements impact or decide a voter's decision to vote in this research. Observation of voting statistics, records, and other election data is only one aspect of voter behaviour research (shifts). Aspects of voter psychology, such as how they perceive and feel about politics and the institutions that support it, are also addressed.

Voting behaviour is not a new concept. However, in recent years, it's been used to designate topics of research and political occurrences that were previously unimagined or dismissed as unimportant. The study of voting behaviour includes the collection and analysis of vote records and data, as well as projections of electoral changes and swings. Individual ’s psychological processes (image, emotion, and motivation) and organizational structures (such as the communication process) are also examined in connection to political activity and their influence on election results, as well as both."Voting Behaviours is a topic of research that focuses on how individuals vote in public elections and why they vote the way they do," according to the website. Voting behaviour is now considered a large and board topic of research under the wider categorization of political behaviour, which is a phrase that has lately been expanded in significance. Voting is used to investigate human political behaviour. As a voter, you have a window into the minds of the millions of individuals that participate in the political process by voting. These topics are crucial in the field of political science because they allow for the systematic and qualitative evaluation of theoretical predictions (Antunes, 2010).

Electoral behaviour is broken down into electoral behaviour. Political scientists have long sought to understand how and why public officials and the general public make choices. Understanding voter behaviour may assist. When it became necessary to explain voting behaviour using both political science and psychology, a new branch of study called electoral psychology was created. Scholars of political psychology are looking at the impact of effect on voting decisions, and some suggest that affect may explain how voters make intelligent political judgements despite low levels of political attention and skill. Bruter and Harrison, on the other hand, argue that electoral psychology incorporates the ways in which people's personalities, memories, emotions, and other psychological elements influence their voting experience and conduct.

Gender, race, culture, and religion all need to be considered when drawing conclusions and making predictions regarding voting behaviour. The affluence and geographic location of an elector's home can also have an effect on their voting behaviour, which is something that can be considered from a more theoretical perspective. Emotions, political socialization, tolerance for a variety of political viewpoints, and the media are other important public influencers.Concepts on the formation of attitudes, opinions, schema, procedural knowledge, and the practice of information processing are the finest tools for understanding the impact of these effects on voting behaviour. People in individualistic societies with rights such as the ability to vote, for example, are typically happy, according to polls from many nations. Moreover, family and friend-based social and peer factors have a considerable impact on elections and voting behaviour. The quality of really democratic outcomes is determined by how much internal and external dynamics impact voting decisions. According to Bruter and Harrison, voters discriminate between "referees" and "supporters" while voting in elections, implying that the decision is more than a preference.

Elections are a kind of democratic involvement in which all citizens express their views on individuals and issues by filling out a ballot. Voting is a democratic expression of class struggle. Voting surveys have found significant variances in political views among people of various ages, classes, education levels, religious affiliations, and ethnic backgrounds. The events of a person's life have an impact on whether or not they vote right or left. Political sociology, often known as sociological politics, is a relatively new topic of advanced study, not a discipline, that is gaining steam as a consequence of research into election behaviour, which mixes politics with sociology. The ability of political parties and pressure organizations to use religious and community elements, the power of money or a leader's magnetic personality, and a slew of other illogical conditions all have an influence on voters' decisions. If an empirical politics student focusses his attention on how favorable election results are formed, these illogical explanations can be recognized or discerned. This is true of any democratic system, including Uttar Pradesh's. Prof.V.M.Sirsikar, on the other hand, properly observes: "A study into the process of election exposes causes other than rationality".

Figure 1: Model of voter’s choice behavior

Source:Researchgate.net/figure/Model-of-voters-choice-behavior-Newman-and-Sheth-1985-p179_fig4_276944287

Determinates of Voting Behaviours

The following are the primary political and socioeconomic elements that influence voting behaviour in our democratic system:

1. Charisma

Charisma is a key aspect in voting behaviour. People in vast numbers are attracted to and reverenced by an outstanding factor or override group elements leader, or they are terrified to talk or do anything against the wants of the powerful leader, depending on how they're used to. Fortunately, in our nation, the charismatic factor that contributes to progress has played a part in recent elections. Attendance at gatherings addressed by legendary characters like Nehru and Indira, as well as the quick shift in voter sentiment after hearing the pleas of such luminaries as Vajpayee and Modi, may be taken as proof that charisma plays an important part in influencing our voting habits.

2. Caste

In India, caste continues to influence voting behaviour. It has deep societal origins and serves as a vital basis for social ties on all levels. Despite the introduction of a number of legislations prohibiting discrimination and action based on caste, caste maintains to be a role in political behaviour. The Indian political system is well-known for its caste politics and casteism in politics. Every Indian political party, without exception, considers caste when developing policies, programmes, and electoral strategies. When picking candidates to run in a constituency election, caste is a criterion to consider. To acquire votes, caste is employed. Caste is more important than ever in politics, and politics is more important than ever in caste. In rural India, voters are mostly concerned about caste. Despite the adoption of democratic standards that foresee a caste-free society, the caste system remains in Indian politics.

3. Religion

Despite the foundation of a secular state in India, which guarantees religious freedom, respects all religions equally, and does not designate any religion as the state religion, religious beliefs continue to influence political and voting behaviour. Political parties and neo-political groups affiliated with various religions, such as the Muslim League, Akali Dal, Hindu Maha Sabha, Shiv Sena and others have endured in part because religion continues to be a major element in voting behaviour. The selection of candidates is done with the presence of a religious majority in mind. Candidates aren't afraid to play the religion card with fellow believers and the secular card with non-believers in order to get support for their positions. Voters frequently base their decisions on their religious beliefs.

4. Language

India is a multi-lingual country with a diverse population. Voting behaviour is influenced by a variety of factors, including linguistics. The fact that India's states are organised on a linguistic basis completely shows the importance of language as a political force in the country. It has happened in some countries that there have been issues with one or more languages having a specific status in that country or with the quality of the status of a language in a particular country. Because individuals have an emotional relationship to their native languages, they are easily swayed when an issue connected to language is brought to their attention. Interests in linguistics always have an impact on voting behaviour.

5. Money Factor

India is an impoverished country with a big population living below the poverty line. Money, in and of itself, has a significant effect in deciding people's voting behaviour in India. Elections are more likely to be won by a rich candidate or party. In normal conditions, this only occurs, not during a wave election or when other critical concerns are present. The Congress(I) was defeated in 1989, despite an expensive political campaign.

6. Sub-Nationalism

The harsh realities of Indian society include ethnic plurality, communalism, regionalism, and sub-nationalism. Since recently, people's voting decisions have been heavily influenced by sub-nationalism. Occasionally, a separatist organisation calls for a boycott of elections and utilizes pressure techniques to persuade citizens to vote against a certain party.

7. Performance of the Party in Power

When a political party runs for office, it does so with an election manifesto, and it is expected to deliver on the promises it made in that document. People's basic behaviour is greatly influenced by the ruling party's performance, good or poor, based only on election promises made and pledges actually fulfilled. During the 1979 election, the Congress (I), which had achieved a landslide victory in the previous election in 1984, failed to even gain a simple majority. Both the Congress Party and the Janata Dal failed to win elections in 1989 and 1991 as a result of their incapacity to impose and maintain a political stability. Many young people from rich upper-middle-class households who are prepared to switch allegiances based on their performance have been the main factor behind this movement.

8. Mass Literacy

Additionally, the vast availability of information has played a role in influencing voting behaviour in India. A political party, a religious sect, or a militant organisation may be able to play on people's irrational impulses in order to further their own ends. Because the votes of the illiterate make up a large percentage of all votes cast, they have a significant effect on the outcome of elections.Despite this trait, common sense and maturity gained from life's lessons have also influenced voters' ideas and behaviours in the past and present. In 1977, they banded together to combat the forces of authoritarianism, and in 1980, they banded together once more to beat the nonperformers which have banded together.

9. Factionalism

Indian politics, from the village to the national level, is rife with factionalism. The BJP, which is founded on cadres, and the two communist parties both struggle with factionalism. As Rajani Kothari points out, the Congress is a place where this happens on a regular basis. Power has been diminished for a political party with a legendary history, a fragile present, and a grim future. Other political parties are also impacted by factionalism.

10. Public Esteem of the Candidate

Voting behaviour is always influenced by a candidate's report with the people in his or her constituency, as well as by his or her known attributes or contribution to any value spread of activity. The type and level of a voter's affiliation with a candidate, in addition to his or her party's allegiance and position on numerous issues and problems, is always taken into consideration when deciding. A positive image of a candidate for a political party might help the party gain popular support. A voter wants to support a politician who is approachable and willing to help him in any capacity he need.

11. Election Campaigns

In order to sway voters in their favour, each political party mounts a ferocious election campaign. Campaigns rely on a wide range of tactics to get out the vote: large-scale events and personal interactions; campaign posters and poster wars; celebrity speeches; broadcasts on radio and television; newspaper ads; hand bills; processions; and propaganda. Votes that aren't cast in a centralized location are critical in this contest.The goal of an election campaign is to persuade a voter that the party, and especially the candidate from that party running in his or her area, is best suited to represent his or her interests. (Hix, & Noury, 2016).

Below Poverty Line (BPL)

Below Poverty Line is a measure used by the Indian government to identify people and families in need of help. It's used to measure economic disadvantage. It's dependent on a variety of characteristics that differ from state to state and even within states. The current set of criteria was developed as a result of a referendum in 2002. Undecided on how to identify families in poverty in India's census, which will take place in 10 years, the country's central government.

Extreme poverty is defined as a daily income per person of less than $150 in purchasing power parity. Approximately 12.4 percent of Indians are considered to be extremely poor, according to this assessment. Income-based poverty lines take into consideration only the bare minimum income required to meet basic food needs, leaving out other necessities like health care and education.

Figure 2: Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line

Source: Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation, Government of India

Indian Politics and Poor

In India, the poor and disadvantaged castes vote more than the wealthier and higher castes, and frequently more than those in established democracies. In the same way, voter turnout in rural regions is higher than in urban areas. Although not all elected state governments have policies that benefit the poor, the impoverished have higher expectations of the government than the wealthy. The impoverished and disenfranchised in India have trust in the democratic process because they expect the government to give equal opportunity to all citizens, regardless of caste, creed, religion, or economic background, and to actively endeavour to remove these barriers.

However, the state is bound by economic and social institutions as well as the political process of governing. In contrast to political institutions, these reflect existing disparities and are market-driven. The democratic system does imply some kind of equality in the form of universal suffrage, which allows the poor to have their opinions heard regardless of their economic status. However, this does not always imply a commitment to justice and equality. Indeed, as compared to non-democratic countries like China, developing-country democracies have a poor track record in alleviating poverty.

Voting Behaviour of BPL

According to the latest SBI Eco wrap report, as India prepares for the Lok Sabha election in 2019, voter turnout is crucial. However, if previous voter participation data is any indication, poverty and deprivation may prohibit individuals from exercising their most basic right. In India, it has been observed that poor people vote less.According to the SBI report, states in the north with greater poverty ratios, such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Jharkhand, had lower voter turnout. In contrast, states with lesser levels of deprivation, like as Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, and Punjab, have greater voter turnout. According to a new version of the worldwide Multidimensional Poverty Index, India's poverty rate fell dramatically from 55 percent in 2005-06 to 28 percent in 2015-16. It has lifted 27.10 crore people out of poverty as a result of this. Nonetheless, a sizable section of the population remains impoverished, suffering from a variety of hardships.

The Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative's Multidimensional Poverty Index is based on the deprivations that each person faces in terms of education, health, and living standard. The SBI report examines voter turnout patterns in this setting.

According to the SBI report, most southern and northern states that were home to the agricultural revolution have more conscious voters. Furthermore, the majority of the North-East and Eastern states have greater turnout rates and varying levels of poverty, according to the report.

In many regions, socio-political characteristics such as population size, age, educational achievement, political interest, and economic backwardness have enormous influence on election outcomes.

The demographic of gender shown that out of 200 respondents, male is 150as compared of female is50. The demographic of age shows that out of 200 respondents, the age of 18-25 is 90, whereas the age of 25- 40 is 60 and the age of 40 and above is 50. The demographic of occupation shown that out of 200 respondents, the wage workers is 88, whereasself-employed is 70 and unemployed is 42.

Table 1: The level of educational qualification of the voter’s

Table 2: Descriptiveof education qualification on their voting behaviour of BPL

In the table 1, the level of educational qualification of the voter’s has been described. There is total 200 respondents. Out of which 160 is uneducated and their responses percentage is 80. 40 is educated and their responses percentage is 40. Study showed that there is significant impact of education qualification on their voting behaviour of BPL. In table 2, descriptive statistics of educational qualification has been shown. Table described that mean score of educated and uneducated are slightly changed. Uneducated mean score is 38.3 and educated is 37.9.

Table 3: ANOVA of Voting Behaviour of BPL

Table 3 showed that significant impact of education qualification on their voting behaviour of BPL. Because significance value is less than 0.05 (i,e, 0.003).

Table 4: Schemes of government provide for BPL voters

Figure3: Schemes of government provide for BPL voters

In the table above shows thatfive government schemes for BPL peoples are how much contributed. In Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana people are contributed 20%, in Atal Pension Yojana (APY) contributed 10%, In Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana contributed 18%, in Free ration schemes contributed 43%, and in Stand-Up India Scheme contributed 10%.