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Myanmar-Bihar relation was prolonged and intense since the ancient period. Buddhism was working as bridge to connect these two cultures. Buddhism took birth in Bihar and many places in Bihar such as Bodh Gayā, Nālandā etc. hold august position in the Buddhist world. At present Myanmar is a Buddhist country and from the ancient time it has a strong connection with Bihar. Various kings, scholars and common people visited Buddhist places of Bihar and established relation by influencing and being influenced by the local people and cults. This article is an attempt to trace the early Buddhist cultural contacts between Bihar and Myanmar. Legends claim that the Buddha himself visited Myanmar several times but historically this has not been proved. This research paper will study the primary as well as secondary sources to find out the early historical relationship between these two places with Buddhism perspective.

India and Myanmar are sharing various common platforms to strengthen the cultural relation. India is following ‘Act East Policy’ after ‘Look East Policy.” On the other hand, Myanmar is also supplementing the same enthusiasm. Both the countries are sharing not only political boundary but also cultural heritage with each other. Buddhism has been proved as a bridge to strengthen the cultural bond between each other. Buddhism is deep rooted with Bihar as the Buddha attained enlightenment here in Bodhgayā. Later, Bodhgayā became one of the sacred place of Buddhism and always got a revered place among the Buddhists from all over the world including Myanmar. Here, an attempt has been made to trace out the significance of Bihar, especially Bodhgayā, to enrich the cultural heritage of India and strengthen the cultural bond between India and Myanmar. Objectivesof the present research paper are as follows:- 1. To trace out the role of Buddhism in strengthening the cultural relation between India and Myanmar. 2. To investigate the early Buddhist cultural contacts between Bihar and Myanmar. 3. To analyse the cultural significance of Bihar in Buddhism.

Étienne Lamotte (1988) initiated the modern period of Buddhology or Buddhist Studies from his book Histoire du bouddhisme indien, des origins à l’ère śaka, which was originally published in French in 1958.[8] He gives a detailed informative account of early Buddhism and its teachings. He attempts to adhere as closely as possible to the sources by referring to them, as it were.[9]Lars Fogelin (2015) presents an archaeological study of Buddhism tracing its historical development in India from its origin to the middle of the second millennium CE.[10]He portrays a history of religious change through the analysis of changes in inscriptions, architecture, symbolism, iconography, ritual and doctrines.

Though Buddhism almost disappeared in India, it has a strong hold in some Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam etc. Some prominent scholars have traced out the evolution of Buddhism in these countries. TheHistorians of South East Asiaedited by D. G. E. Hall gives us an idea to trace the trend and challenges of history writing for Southeast Asia.[11.] Indigenous writings and Western writings are available but works done in English are less. However, a considerable number of writings are there to trace the relationship between India and Southeast Asian countries both from the perspectives of Hinduism and Buddhism.Daniel George Edward Hall, in his other work (1970), presents Southeast Asia historically in its own perspective rather than in relation with China, India or the West.[12] Roger Bischoff (1995) offers a brief overview of the historical development of Buddhism in Myanmar (Burma) from its origin until the beginning of the British rule in the late nineteenth century.[13]Arvind Kumar Singh (2009) elaborates meticulously the various aspects of Buddhism in Central, South and Southeast Asia including its history, evolution, various branches or schools, doctrines, prominent thinkers etc.[14]Kanai Lal Hazra (2018) attempts to trace the cultural and religious ties between Ceylon and its neighbouring Theravāda Southeast Asian countries.[15]The main purpose of his book History of Theravada Buddhism in South-East Asia is to examine and to evaluate historically the primary sources as the evidence relating to the religious ties that existed among the Theravāda countries.[16]

Buddhism in Myanmar

According to the Sāsanavaṃsa, lord Buddha had visited Myanmar several times for preaching ‘the true path.’ Mon, Burmese and Arakanese (present day Rakhine, lower Myanmar) oral traditions too believe the arrival of the Buddha to their land. Legend says that the Buddha with Thera Ānanda and 500 disciples visited Dhanyawadi, the then capital of Arakan. The king of Arakan requested to the Buddha for an image to worship after his departure from Dhanyawadi.[17] Thus, the Buddha sat for meditation under a Bodhi tree and an image made of gems was moulded by Sakka and Vissakamma (Sanskrit Vishvakarma).[18]The image was called ‘Mahāmuni Image’ and hence, Arakan is known as ‘the land of the great image’. There was another story for the making of this ‘Mahāmuni Image.’ According to that story the image was built during the reign of king Sandathuriya (146-198 CE).[19] The mention of this event is found in Hpayà-thamaing (literally, ‘pagoda history’) too, which presents a dialogue between the Buddha and Ānanda during their peregrination to Arakan.[20] From Arakan they went to Lower Burma (Myanmar). In this dialogue, the Buddha also talks about his earlier travels to Arakan.

The story of the arrival of the Buddha’s hair relics to Myanmar is also broadly accepted by the Burmese people. These hair relics were carried from Bodhgayā to Ukkala[21] (Yangoon) by two merchants - Tapassu and Bhallika. According to legends, these merchants were travelling through the region of Uruvelā and were directed to the Buddha by their family God. The Buddha was sitting under a tree and feeling hungry. The merchants offered him rice cake and honey. The Buddha accepted the offering and blessed them with the two refuges, the refuge in the Buddha and the refuge in the Dhamma.[22] Tapassu and Bhallika became the first lay followers of Buddhism. Before departing from the Bodhgayaa, the merchants asked the Buddha for an object to worship in his stead. The Buddha blessed them with eight hairs of his head. They enshrined three hairs in a stupa after reaching Ukkala.  The stupa is popularly known as the great Shwedagon pagoda in Yangoon

Although aforementioned events of arrival of the Buddha and the two merchants are broadly accepted by the people of Myanmar but both these events are more legendry and less historical. Other than these events, one can find some more examples which show that Burmese people were in contact with Bihar. For instance, according to Kalyani inscription of Dharmmacetī, Mahathera Prānadassi of Sudhammapura (Thaton, lower Myanmar) was used to visit (through his supernatural powers) the Mahābodhi tree in Uruvelā daily in the morning and sweep the courtyard. Another instance is found in The Glass palace chronicle, which mentions that the king Alaungsithu (1112-1168) as well as Shin Arahan had visited Mahābodhi.[23]

Arrival of Sona – Uttara to Suvarṇabhūmi

The very first literary reference of the arrival of Buddhism in Mainland Southeast Asia is found about the Buddhist delegates sent to Suvarnabhūmi by Emperor Aśoka for the propagation of Buddhism. Thera Sona and Thera Uttarā were sent to Suvarnabhūmi where they propagated the Theravāda form of Buddhism. There, they established a monastery at Kelasa Mountain.[24] They preached the Brahmajāla Sutta which led to 60,000 conversions and 5,000 recruits.[25] But this was not the first interaction with Suvarnabhūmi. Bihar was connected to Suvarnabhūmi from earlier times. Suvarṇabhūmi has been mentioned many times in various sources such as Buddhist texts like the Jātaka Tales;[26] Sinhalese chronicles Mahāvaṃsa and Dīpavaṃsa; Burmese chronicles the Glass Palace Chronicle and Sāsanavaṃsa etc. According to Sinhalese chronicle Mahāvaṃsa, Suvarnabhūmi was one of those nine places where Aśoka’s delegates were sent for preaching and propagation of Theravāda form of Buddhism.[27] Burmese sources too admit the incident of sending Thera Son and Thera Uttarā.[28]

This is noteworthy to mention here that there is a long scholarly debate on the location of Suvarṇabhūmi. Burmese tradition claims that both the theras reached Thaton, a town in the Mon state of Myanmar, and preached Brahmajāla Sutta. Sāsanavaṃsa identifies Suvarnabhūmi as the modern city of Sudhamma.[29] Bischoff relates Sudhamma to Thaton.[30] Another place Vanavāsi is identified as Sirikhetta or Śrīkşetra (modern Prome).[31] Both the places, Thaton and Prome are in Myanmar. On the other hand, Thai tradition as well as some modern scholars believe that the group of missionary Bhikkhus sent to Suvarnabhūmi for preaching the Buddha’s doctrine reached somewhere in Thailand whose capital was Nakhon Pathom. Even some scholars of Laos and Cambodia believe that the territory of Suvarnabhūmi is in their countries. This is still a puzzle that where exactly Suvarnabhūmi is!

Venerables Sona and Uttarā started their journey from Magadha to Suvarnabhūmi by land.[32] During their journey, they must cross Myanmar first before reaching other places in Southeast Asia. The great Pagoda, if stripped of its later-constructed top, is very similar in design to the stupa of Sānchi, constructed by Emperor Aśoka.[33] These archaeological findings indicate the probability of arriving of Thera Sona and Thera Uttarā to Nakhon Pathom but this indication has not been proved historically by any historians. Howsoever, arrival of both the theras to Suvarṇabhūmi became a milestone for spreading Buddhism in Myanmar.

Bodhgayā and its Religious Significance

Bodhgayā (24° 41′ 42.37′′ N and 86° 02′ 40′′ E) is one of the most important key locations instrumental in connectingBihar and Myanmar.[34]] Bodhgayā holds a privileged position in the Buddhist world due to its close connection directly with the Buddha. One of the four most important life events of the Buddha is related to this land.[35] Bodhgayā is the place where the Buddha attained enlightenment and started his journey to teach others the true path of emancipation. In other words, at Bodhgayā, ‘Prince Siddhārtha’ became ‘the Buddha.’ Thus, it is one of the most sacred and pious places for Buddhists.[36] The Buddha himself suggests, during a discussion with Ānanda while he was at ‘the last place of rest,’[37] for that a pious person should visit Bodhgayā as a pilgrimage with feelings of reverence.[38]According to the Mahāparinirvāna Sutta, the Buddha, during his discussion with Ānanda, told that a pious person should visit four places with feelings of reverence during his lifetime. He described those four places as- 1. the place where the Buddha was born i.e. Lumbinī near Kapilvastu 2. the place where the Buddha became fully enlightened in unsurpassed i.e. Bodhgayā in Bihar 3. the place where the Buddha set rolling the unexcelled Wheel of the Dhamma i.e. Isipatana near Varanasi (modern day Sārnāth) and 4. the place of passing away of the Buddha into the state of Nibbāna i.e. Kusinārā.[39]

Thus, he described the significance of Bodhgayā as the place where the Tathāgata, the Buddha himself, became fully enlightened in unsurpassed, supreme Enlightenment.[40] These words of the Buddha define the importance of Bodhgayā for his followers. Gradually, Bodhgayā gained popularity as a religious place and became a centre of attraction for the followers of Buddhism.

The Mahābodhi Temple of Bodhgayā and Its Connection with Myanmar

A Buddhist tradition developed in Bodhgayā becomes the role model for the rest of the world whether it is architecture, sculpture, festivals or any ritual. Bodhgayā is situated near Rājgir and Pātliputra. Both the cities had the privilege of being the capitals of Magadh Empire for a long time. Hence, the architectural styles developed in this region affected the temple architecture of Bodhgayā which left an impact on the Buddhist architecture flourishing outside this region. For instance, the Mahābodhi Temple of Bodhgayā became the model design for the temple architecture of Mainland Southeast Asian countries and thus several replicas of this temple are found there.[41]

The Mahābodhi temple is built on the same place where the Buddha attained his enlightenment. This is one of the oldest brick temples in India. The very first temple in this temple complex was built in the second century CE over the stupa constructed by Emperor Aśoka in the middle of the Third century BCE.[42] The building made by Aśoka has also been referred in the Burmese inscriptions, recording the successive repairs of the temple. Through the ages, this temple earned a special status in the Buddhist world.[43] Bodhgayā and this Mahābodhi temple emerged as a centre of attraction for various kings, historians, scholars, pilgrimages, common devotees etc. from different countries having Buddhist populations. On the other hand, this place helped Indian rulers, for instance, Emperor Aśoka, to establish cultural and diplomatic relations with other countries. Similarly, Ceylonese chronicler Mahanama II[44] made a pilgrimage to this Bodhi tree and donated a temple and Buddhist scripture.[45] The Chinese monk Fa-Hien visited Bodhgayā in 409 CE and recorded three temples there while by the time of Yuan-Chwang (in 637 CE) this number has increased to six.[46]

Yuan-Chwang visited Bodhgayā and described in detail about the Mahābodhi temple. Cunningham believes that the present Mahābodhi temple is the same temple as described by Yuan-Chwang, although it has faced repeated repairs and additions.[47] This temple has been standing since the late Gupta period. It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely with brick. The Mahābodhi temple complex covers an area of 4.86 ha and comprises various kinds of constructions including a 55 m high temple, sacred Bodhi tree (descended from the original Bodhi tree), a lotus pond, numerous ancient Votive stupas and other six sacred sites related to the Buddha’s stay in Bodhgayā immediately before his enlightenment.

The main temple building in the Mahābodhi temple complex was built in the post Gupta period. It was measured 170 feet, after renovation, in height in 1861 CE by Alexander Cunningham. It was made of bluish bricks with a coating of plaster. It is 48 feet square at its base. The four faces present several tiers of niches rising one above the other. These once carried Buddhist figures as Cunningham has found three such figures.[48] This temple is pyramidal in shape and identical to ṡikhar of Hindu temple architecture.[49] There are five towers with one main tower in the centre. The remaining four towers are on each corner and less in height. The architectural design of this temple represents the Buddhist idea of the universe.

The Mahābodhi Temple, Bodhgayā

Burmese Connections with the Mahābodhi Temple

Mahābodhi Pagoda at Pagan (Bagān), Myanmar

The Burmese followed the architectural style evolved in the region of eastern India. They followed the design of the Mahābodhi temple of Bodhgayā and constructed its replicas in their country. There are about twenty-three replicas of the Mahābodhi temple in Myanmar which were constructed throughout the ages and the Mahābodhi pagoda of Bagān is one of those. There are thousands of surviving Buddhist monuments in Myanmar, but the Mahābodhi pagoda of Bagān holds a unique place among Burmese Buddhist monuments.

Inscriptions record that king Kyanzittha (1084-1113 CE) of Bagān sent a Buddhist missionary to Bodhgaya to repair the Mahābodhi temple of Bodhgaya.[50] The missionary brought seeds from there and planted the Bodhi tree in Bagān. Later, king Htilominlo (1211-1232 CE) built a pagoda. Although, this pagoda is a replica of the Mahābodhi temple of Bodhgayā, but this is not an exact copy of the original. It differs in its proportion and shape. This Mahābodhi pagoda is a rare example of a Burmese pagoda which is quite a different form distinct from the typical bell-shaped pagodas. This temple is built in an architectural style typical during the Gupta period. It is in pyramidal shape with many niches containing over 450 small images of the Buddha. Later, the temple has been repaired many times.

In the eleventh century CE, one more such mission, or known as ‘repair missions,’ reached Bodhgayā to repair the Mahābodhi temple.[51]A Mon inscription ‘Shwesandaw Pagoda Inscription’ at Pyayalso refers to a Burmese repair mission.[52] According to this inscription, the mission was directed to repair the temple and buy some land to dig a tank (for irrigation) and perform some other activities in the temple like burning candles, making arrangements for singing and dancing in the temple and presenting various musical instruments.[53] Both the repair missions succeeded in altering the original design of the temple.[54]An inscription, written in Burmese on a grey basalt slab, of late thirteenth century CE in Bodhgayā also confirms this incident. Luce relates this incident with the ‘King of Dhamma’, ‘Lord of the White Elephant’.[55] While other scholars do not agree with this view and suggest some other kings like Tarukplyi or his son Klawcwā or Klacwā. But all of these scholars have accepted the happening of this event.

Buddhapādas worship became another important bridge to connect Bihar and Myanmar culturally.These repair missions were practicing Buddhapādas worship and they continued this practice in Bodhgayā too. Burmese pilgrims and repair missions,sent by Burmese political elites to Bodhgayā to repair the Mahābodhi temple complex, used to come Bodhgayā time to time. They were promoting the footprint worship (the Buddhapādas) at Mahābodhi. They did it by turning miniature stūpasinto Buddhapādas.

The tradition of Buddhist councils

The Buddha did not declare anyone his successor but he established a well-formed monastic order which carried out his teachings for the next generations. The disciples of the Buddha, Mahākassapa, Upāli and Ānanda made efforts to preserve the purity of his teachings. It has been asserted that, according to Cullavagga, that Mahākassapa was not present at Kusinārā when the Buddha attained nirvāṇa. An Ājīvakainformed him about the incident after a week of themahāparinirvāna.[56]The Mahāparinirvāna Sutta mentionsthat Mahākassapa was journeying from Pāvā to Kusinārā together with a large company of five hundred bhikkhus when he knew about the demise of the Buddha by a certain Ājīvakawho was coming fromKusinārā and brought a mandārava flower from there.[57] Some bhikkhus who were not freed from passion lifted their arms up and started weeping, some flinging themselves on the ground, rolled from side to side and wept, lamenting that the blessed one (the Buddha) has come to parinirvāṇa too soon. By seeing their worry Mahākassapa addressed them by saying, “Enough friends! Do not grieve, do not lament! For has not the Blessed One declared that with all that is dear and beloved there must be change, separation, and severance? Of that which is born, come into being, compounded, and subject to decay, how can one say: ‘May it not come to dissolution!’?”[58]

On the other hand at the same time, another monk, some Subhadda, who had renounced in his old age was seating in his assembly and misguiding the bhikkhus.[59] He was addressing, ‘Enough, your reverences, do not grieve, do not lament, we are well rid of this great recluse. We were worried when he said: ‘This is allowable to you; this is not allowable to you.’ But now we will be able to do as we like and we won’t do what we don’t like.’[60] By knowing these irrelevant and misleading remarks of Subhadda, Mahākassapa, concerned about the future safety and purity of the dhamma, preached the teachings of the Buddha. In theMahāvaṃsa too, it is recorded that Mahākassapa was bethinking about the evil words of Subhadda.[61] Subhadda was not alone in having such thoughts. There were many others too who were thinking that the teachings of the Buddha will be forgotten after his death.[62] There was one more reason for the anxiety of Mahākassapa. He was believed, according to Mahāvaṃsa, to yield the authority equal to that of the Buddha and was determined to fulfil the Buddha’s command to establish the path taught by him. For this, he had received the garments of the Buddha, by the Buddha himself, as a token.[63] Thus, there was a need for such a council that could establish the original teachings of the Buddha. Mahākassapa succeeded in calling such a council and compiled the teachings of the Buddha in the Sutta Piṭaka and the Vinaya Piṭaka.[64]

Bihar is the place where the first three Buddhist councils were held. The first Buddhist council was held in Saptaparni cave in Rājgriha under the patronage of king Ajatshatru in 483 BCE. The second council was held in Vaishāli in 383 BCE under the patronage of king Kalaśoka. While the third council was held in Pātaliputra in 250 BCE under the patronage of Emperor Aśoka. Under his patronage Buddhism was spread at broad level and reached to Suvarṇabhūmi (Myanmar). At present, Myanmar has been established as one of the major countries following Theravāda Buddhism.  It has hosted the fifth (1871 CE) and the Sixth (1954-56 CE) Buddhist Councils in Mandalay and Rangoon respectively. Thus, the tradition of calling Buddhist councils was adopted by Myanmar.

Councils	Year	Place	Reign	President	Purpose/Achievement
First	c. 483 BCE	Rājgrih	Ajātaśatru	Mahākassapa	Compiled Sutta Piṭaka and Vinaya Piṭaka
Second	c. 383 BCE	Vaishāli	Kālāśoka	Sarvakamni	Schism in Buddhism
Third	c. 250 BCE	Pātaliputra	Aśoka	Tissa	Compiled Abhidhamma Piṭaka
Fourth	1st Century CE	Kashmir	Kaniṣka	Vasumitra	Schism in Buddhism as Mahāyāna or ‘greater vehicle.’

Table 1- Buddhist Councils in India

Burmese tradition of calling Buddhist Councils

The tradition of calling Buddhist councils continued in Myanmar too but this country follows a different tradition of such councils. According to Burmese tradition, there were six Buddhist councils. The first three councils were held in India. Next was held in Sri Lanka and the last two were held in Myanmar. The objective of the fifth council was to prepare a uniform edition of Pāli Canon. This synod was convened at Mandalay in 1871 CE (BE 2414). 2400 monks and teachers participated in this synod. This was patronised by King Min-donmin and presided by the Elders Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja and Sumangala Sami. During the council, it took five months for the recording of the Tripiṭakas on 729 marbles in the royal palace.[65]

The sixth council was commenced in 1954 CE and it was presided by Venerable Abhidhaja Maharattha Guru Bhadanta Revata. Bhikkhus from various countries like India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Pakistan came and participated in the congregation. About 500 bhikkhus from Myanmar were invited for re-examining the text of the Tripīṭakas. Similar kinds of groups of monks were organised from each country for the same purpose- to examine the text of the Tripīṭakas. This was a great council that took two years to complete in 1956 CE, the 2500^th anniversary of the mahāparinirvāna of the Buddha.[66]

Table 2- Buddhist Councils in Burmese Tradition

Thus, the tradition of calling synods or the Buddhist councils has been adopted by the Myanmar too. Such councils were being called for compiling Pāli canons and their commentaries, restoring Buddhism which was affected due to various reasons like pandemics or wars, restabilising Buddhism whenever any disputes arose etc. Although Myanmar followed a different tradition of Buddhist councils than that of India, it accepts the first three Buddhist councils which were held in Bihar. These synods helped Buddhism to restore and to strengthen itself whenever required.

Burmese legends believe that the Buddha himself visited Myanmar several times along with his companions but no such historical evidence has been found. The very first historical evidence of Buddhist contact between Bihar and Myanmar is found in Sinhalese and Burmese chronicles about the Buddhist delegates sent by Emperor Aśoka after the third Buddhist council. Buddhism reached there from Magadha after the propagation of Theravada Buddhism in Suvarṇabhūmi by Thera Sona and Thera Uttara. The Buddha attained his enlightenment in Bodhgayā, Bihar, therefore it has a pious place in Buddhism. It is one of the four sacred places of Buddhism. From the very beginning of its establishment, Buddhism flourished under the patronageof Magadha rulers whose capitals were in Rājgriha and Pātaliputra. The Buddhist tradition emerged or flourished in Bihar has also been followed in Myanmar. Burmese rulers sent many delegates to Bihar, especially Bodhgayā, to show their reverence to Buddhism. Burmese repair missions and the replicas of the Mahābodhi temple of Bodhgayā are the examples of deep rooted cultural connection. There were four Buddhist councils organised in India and the first three were held in Bihar. Burmese tradition of Buddhist councils recognise only the first three councils which were held in Bihar. Myanmar continued this tradition and held two Buddhist councils in the previous two centuries. India and Myanmar are connected through historical, ethnic, cultural, religious and economic ties. At present, both the countries are sharingvarious bi-lateral and multi-lateral platforms such as ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), India-Myanmar-Thailand Friendship Highway, the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), East Asia Summit (EAS), Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Mekong Ganga Cooperation (MGC) etc. Bihar always played an important role for making this relation stronger. On the whole, the above analysis shows that Bihar and Myanmar are culturally connected through Buddhism since the very early historical period. At present, Buddhism is less popular in Bihar but flourishing in Myanmar and Bihar is still recognised as a sacred place in the Buddhist world.

1. His works are- (1944). Hindu Colonies in the Far-East. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay; (1985). Champa (History and Culture of An Indian Colonia Kingdom in the Far East, 2nd-16th century A.D.). Delhi: Gian Publication House. & (1986). Suvarnadvipa: Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East 2 volumes. Delhi: Gyan Publishing House. 2. G. Coedès. (1968). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. (W. F. Vella, Ed., & S. B. Cowing, Trans.). Canberra: Australian National University Press. 3. A. K. Coomaraswamy. (1927). History of Indian and Indonesian Art. London: Edward Goldston. 4. S. P. Gupta. & S. P. Asthana. (2015). Elements of Indian Art: Including Temple Architecture, Iconography & Iconometry (Perspectives in Indian Art and Archaeology, No. 4). New Delhi: Indraprastha Museum of Art and Archaeology. P. 164. 5. According to Rājavaṃsa, a short chronicle written by Aggadhammālanṅkāra, the Buddha came with five hundred monks. While another source says that the Buddha reached that land as many as twenty thousand monks. See B. C. Law. (Trans.). (1952). The History of the Buddha’s Religion (Sāsanavaṃsa). London: Luzac & Co. Ltd. Pp. 41-42. 6. Retrieved from the website of India government on October 25, 2018 from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS 7. According to the census report of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar: The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census Volume 2-C The Union Report: Religion. Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population MYANMAR July, 2016. P. 3. 8. É. Lamotte. (1988). History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Saka Era. (S. W. Boin, Trans.). Louvain-la-Neuve: Université Catholique de Louvain, Institut orientaliste. 9. Ibid. P. XXIV. 10. L. Fogelin. (2015). An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 11. D. G. E. Hall. (Ed.). (1961). Historians of South East Asia. London: Oxford University Press. 12. D. G. E. Hall. (1970). A History of South-East Asia. New York: St. Martin's Press. 13. R. Bischoff. (1995). Buddhism in Myanmar: A Short History. Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. 14. A. K. Singh. (2009). Buddhism in South Asia. New Delhi: MD Publications Pvt. Ltd. 15. Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos are the countries where Theravāda Buddhism exists largely. Hazra called them collectively as Theravāda countries. 16. K. L. Hazra. (2018). History of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia (with special reference to India and Ceylon). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 17. A. Simpson, N. Farrelly & I. Holliday (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Myanmar, Routledge: Oxon, 2018. 18. J. Schober, Sacred Biography in the Buddhist Tradition of South and Southeast Asia, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: Delhi, 2002, p. 267. 19. A. Alam, “A Short Historical Background of Arakan” in Arakan Historical Society, 1999, p. 6-7. 20. J. P. Leider, “Relics, Statues, and Predictions: Interpreting an Apocryphal Sermon of Lord Buddha in Arakan” in Asian Ethnology: Power, Authority and Contested Hegemony in Burmese-Myanmar Religion, Vol. 68, no. 2, 2009, p. 335. 21. Identified as Okkalapa near Yangon. But some believe it to be modern Orissa (Utkal) on the east coast of India. 22. It is noteworthy that the third refuge, the Sangha, did not exist yet. 23. Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma,Oxford University Press: London, 1921, p., 105 & 117. 24. V. Subhoga. (2017, June). Buddhism in Myanmar (Burma): From its Inception up to Early Konbaung Dynasty. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture, 3(1). P. 3. 25. É. Lamotte. (1988). History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Saka Era. (S. W. Boin, Trans.). Louvain-la-Neuve: Université Catholique de Louvain, Institut orientaliste. P. 293. 26. For instance, Sussondi-Jātaka, Sankha-Jātaka, Mahājanaka-Jātaka, in E. B. Cowell. (Ed.), The Jātaka: or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, London, Cambridge University Press, 1897; reprinted Pāli Text Society, dist. by Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969, Vol. III, P. 124; Vol. IV, P. 10; Vol. VI, P. 22. 27. W. Geiger. (Trans.). (1986). Op.cit. P. 82. 28. P. M. Tin. and G. H. Luce. (Trans.). (1921). Op.cit. Pp. 49-50. 29. B. C. Law. (Trans.). (1952). Op.cit. Pp. 11-13. 30. R. Bischoff. (1995). Buddhism in Myanmar: A Short History. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. P. 28. 31. B. C. Law. (Trans.). (1952). Op.cit. P. 13. 32. Land route was also used to trade with the Mainland Southeast Asian Countries. Mahājanaka Jātaka provides such evidence of trade from campā to Suvarnabhūmi. See E. B. Cowell. (Ed.). (2015). The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births Vol.VI. No. 539, Pp. 19-37. 33. N. Setabutr. (2002). Buddhism in Thailand. Bangkok: The World Buddhist University. P. 13. 34. Bodhgayā is a small town in present day Gaya district of Bihar. It is situated on the bank of Falgu River. 35. The four most important events of the Buddha’s life are- his birth at Kapilvastu, attainment of Bodhi at Bodhgayā, dharma chakra pravartan or the first sermon at Sārnāth and mahāparinirvāna or his death at Kusinārā. 36. Vajira, S. & Story, F. (Trans.). (2010). Last Days of the Buddha: The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. P. 80-81. 37. ‘The last place of rest’ was in Malla’s Sāla Grove. The Buddha went there with a large company of Bhikkhus when he shared his wish to cross the bank of the Hiraññavatī River and go to the Malla’s Sāla Grove in the vicinity of Kushinārā. For detail see Vajirā, S. & Story, F. (Trans.). (2010). Last Days of the Buddha: The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta(The Wheel Publication No. 67/68).Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. P. 76. 38. Here, a pious person includes bhikkhus, bhikkhunīs, laymen and laywomen. 39. Vajira, S. & Story, F. (Trans.). (2010). Op.cit. P. 80-81. 40. Ibid. P. 80. 41. The Mahābodhi Temple Complex of Bodhgayā, Bihar has been inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2002 CE under the category I as a ‘Unique Property of Cultural and Archaeological Importance.’ This is one of the most popular Buddhist heritage centre of the world. 42. Cunningham, A. (1892). Mahābodhi or the Great Buddhist Temple under the Bodhi Tree at Buddha-Gaya. London: W. H. Allen & Co. P. 4. 43. Although, according to Huen-Tsang or Yuan-Chwang, the great temple was built by a Brahman and not by a Buddhist. The builder was a believer of lord Ṡiva and later on he was converted into Buddhism. Then he built a large vihār by the Bodhi tree and his younger brother dug a tank in the south of the Great temple which is now, probably, the Bodhokhar or Buddha-pokhar. Cunningham, A. (1892). Mahābodhi or the Great Buddhist Temple under the Bodhi Tree at Buddha-Gaya. London: W. H. Allen & Co. Pp. 21-22. 44. Mahanama II was the author of Ceylonese chronicle Mahāvaṃsa and the uncle of Ceylonese king Dhatusena (459-477 CE). 45. Sato, R. (2014). The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. P. 15. 46. Ibid. Pp. 15-16. 47. Cunningham, A. (1892). Op.cit. P. 18. 48. Ibid. P. 18. 49. Gupta, S. P. & Asthana, S. P. (2015). Op.cit. P. 37. 50. Ahir, D. C. (1994). Buddha Gaya Through the Ages (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series No. 134). Delhi: Sri Satguru publications. P. 72. 51. Trevithick, A. (1999). British Archaeologist, Hindu Abbots and Burmese Buddhists: The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, 1811-1877. Modern Asian Studies, 33 (3). P. 636. 52. ‘Shwesandaw Pagoda Inscription’, Epigraphia Birmanica 1 (8), Pp. 147-168. 53. Singh, U. (2016 a). “Politics, Piety and Patronage: The Burmese Engagement with Bodhgaya” in U. Singh, The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics and Archaeology, Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd.Singh: New Delhi, p. 401. 54. Trevithick, A. (1999). British Archaeologist, Hindu Abbots and Burmese Buddhists: The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, 1811-1877. Modern Asian Studies, 33 (3). Pp. 636 & 649. 55. Luce, G. H. (1975). Sources of Early Burma History. In Kowan, C. D. and O. W. Wolters (Eds.). Southeast Asian History and Historiography: Essays Presented to D. G. E. Hall. London: Cornell University Press. Pp. 40-42. 56. Horner, I. B. (Trans.). (2001). Sacred Books of the Buddhists Vol. XX.The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka) Volume V (Cullavagga). Oxford: The Pali Text Society. Pp. 393-394. Ājīvaka is a sect of non-Buddhist ascetics. For detail see Davids, T. W. R. & Stede, W. (Eds.). (1921-1925). The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary. London: The Pali Text Society. P. 111. 57. Vajirā, S. & Story, F. (Trans.). (2010). Op.cit. P. 106. And also Horner, I. B. (Trans.). (2001). Op.cit. P. 393. 58. Vajirā, S. & Story, F. (Trans.). (2010). Op.cit. P. 107. 59. This Subhadda is a different person from the wanderer Subhadda who became the Buddha’s last personal disciple. See Vajirā, S. & Story, F. (Trans.). (2010). Last Days of the Buddha: The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta(The Wheel Publication No. 67/68).Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. P. 126. 60. Horner, I. B. (Trans.). (2001). Op.cit. P. 394. 61. Geiger, W. (Trans.). (1912). The Mahāvaṃsa or The Great Chronicle of Ceylon. London: Oxford University Press for the Pāli Text Society. P. 14. 62. Bapat, P. V. (Ed.). (2018). Op.cit. Pp. 31-32. 63. Geiger, W. (Trans.). (1912). Op.cit. Pp. 14-15. 64. It is noteworthy that the third text of the Tripiṭakas, the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was compiled later in the third Buddhist council. 65. Bapat, P. V. (Ed.). (2018). Op.cit. P. 46. 66. Ibid. Pp. 46-47.