The challenge of nourishing of the world's developing populace is turning out to be perpetually critical. Domesticated animals’ production produces ozone harming substance outflows, causes land use change, expects about 33% of the world's arable land for feed, and is a drain on water supplies. Edible insects are a decent source of protein, unsaturated fats, nutrients, and minerals; however, the healthful profile can fluctuate broadly among species. This makes them a potential food source for healthy human diets. In India, entomophagy is meagrely practiced by the native inhabitants of Kerala, Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and for an enormous scope by the tribal communities of north-eastern India especially among the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and Meghalaya.  According to their customs, tastes, and geographical and seasonal availability, many Indian tribes consume about 250 species of edible insects. Therefore, research into insect species may have economic repercussions and enable nations like India to consider methods for utilising this vast natural resource sustainably. 

The aim of study this to review to, the species of edible insects consumed by various communities in North East India are mostly discussed.

The challenge of nourishing of the world's developing populace is turning out to be perpetually critical. World’s population is expected to expand around 9 billion and Worldwide food demand is supposed to raise by 76% by 2050 (FAO,2009)[6]. It increases high demand of extension of agriculture, but due to limitation of land availability, is not practical solution. Rearing of more livestock can be done to produce more food and to fulfil protein requirement in diets. But domesticated animals’ production produces ozone harming substance outflows, causes land use change, expects about 33% of the world's arable land for feed, and is a drain on water supplies. Thus, alternative sustainable food sources need to be urgently required.  Entomophagy is the practice of eating insects and is being hailed as a clever answer for guarantee practical food production. Entomophagy is a promising arrangement in moving individuals' impression of what comprises a healthy diet, one that gives satisfactory and delightful nourishment and simultaneously has little negative impact on the environment. There are various health advantages from eating insects. Edible insects are a decent source of protein, unsaturated fats, nutrients, and minerals; however, the healthful profile can fluctuate broadly among species. Insects are plentiful in mineral salts like zinc, iron, copper potassium, selenium, magnesium and some essential vitamins such as vitamin A, B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B12 & E (Van Huis et al., 2013)[2].  Thus, Insects could likewise be a feasible option in contrast to customary feed used to date for animal utilization (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013)[7]. For example, Caterpillars have been displayed to have as much as 35.2 grams of protein per 100 grams of palatable portion, when contrasted with 20.6 g and 19.9 g for beef and chicken (Marcus choo, 2020)⁸. This makes them a potential food source for healthy human diets.

Insects develop and reproduce successfully, have high feed transformation productivity as they are cold-blooded. Insect cultivation has low carbon, water and biological impressions when compared with livestock species, making them profoundly alluring from a natural manageability viewpoint. Production of animal meat for human utilization is very resource-intensive; the development of 1 gram of protein from chicken expects a few folds the amount of land and half more water than the development of mealworms. Production of meat, then again, expects up to 14-fold the amount of land and 5-fold the amount of water than the development of mealworms (Marcus choo,2020)[8]. Greatest advantage of raising edible insects for human utilization is that insect farming involves delivering and refined food from disposed of food waste and can be raised on organic side streams, diminishing environmental pollution. Thus, Insects can feed on waste biomass and can transform this into high-value food and feed resource.

India is regarded as a biodiversity hotspot since it is a tropical nation with a large number of edible insect species. India is home to 589 families and 51450 different insect species, according to Varshney (1997)[9]. In another study, estimate by Alfred et al.[10] listed 619 families and 59353 species of insects native to India. There are currently 255 species of edible insects known to exist in India. Coleopteran species made up the majority of these edible insect species roughly 34%, followed by Orthoptera (24%), Hemiptera (17%), Hymenoptera (10%), Odonata (8%), Lepidoptera (4%), Isoptera (2%), and Ephemeroptera (1%), (Chakravorty, J, 2014)[11]. Diving beetle & Water scavenger (Coleoptera), Asian long horned beetle & dragonflies (Odonata), Giant water bug & Nepa (Hemiptera), Red ant (Hymenoptera), Grasshopper (Orthoptera), Termites (Isoptera) are some common edible insects in India (A. Poshadri, et. al. 2018)[12]. In order to support the still-practical entomophagy in our country and to resuscitate some entomophagic practises, it is necessary to consider the potential insect bio-resource that India possesses to be used for future food consumption (Chakravorty et al., 2013)[13]. 

There are more than 220 ethnic tribal communities in the northeast India, 78 of which are substantial and each have a population of over 5000. They make up about 12.0% of India's overall tribal population and 25.81% of the country's total population in North East India. The North East region of India, which consists of 8 states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim), making up around 7% of India's landmass, covering an area of 262,179 sq. km and largely consisting of mountainous terrain. Practice of entomophagy is widespread in India’s northeast region, as the traditional diets of many tribal communities in this region include insects for their nutritional, economic and ecological benefits. Entomophagy helps tribal societies maintain their families' way of life at challenging times of the year in addition to ensuring their nutritional security. In this review, the species of edible insects consumed by various communities in North East India are mostly discussed.

Manipur:

In Manipur, tribe communities have recognised 69 insect species from nine orders and 29 families as edible. Hemiptera has the highest number of palatable species among these orders (10 species), whereas Dictyoptera and Isoptera have the fewest (1 species). The Meitei, Tarao, Tangkhul, Chothe, and Thadou tribes in Manipur have a disproportionately higher variety of insect species (28-30) (Shantibala et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2013)[14,15].  These edible insects are prepared in a variety of ways, such as curry, roasting, frying, and even raw form, depending on the species of insect as Insects with hard bodies are consumed in roasted or fried form, whereas those with soft bodies are consumed raw or in curries. Edible insects are a traditional cuisine with great cultural significance for many ethnic groups in Manipur. An extensive survey was done by M. Bhubaneshwary et.al., to study the aquatic edible insects of Loktak lake of Manipur which revealed the presence of Lethocerus indicus, Diplonychus rusticus, Gerris sps, Aquarius sps, Limnogonus sps, Enithare sps, Paranisops sps, Cercomatus sps, Libulla sps, Sympatrum sps, Leucorrhina sps, Ischnura sps, Pseudagrion sps having food value[16]. In Manipur, insect dishes include roasting, boiling, dry-frying, and deep-frying. The use of large water bugs like Lethocerus indicus and water beetles like Cybister sp. to make dry and wet chutney is very common.

In order to study nutritional quality of the insects and the recommended amount of their intake, the dietary contents of five edible aquatic insects, including Lethocerus indicus (Hemiptera) Laccotrephes maculatus (F.) (Nepidae), Hydrophilus olivaceous (Coleoptera), Cybister tripunctatus and Crocothemis servilia (Odonata), The insects have a high gross energy level and a considerable amount of protein.  The outcomes indicated that the insects are a good source of minerals because they contain significant amounts of proteins and high levels of salt, calcium, and magnesium. Significant antioxidant activity is also present in the aquatic insects C. tripunctatus (110 g/mL). (T. Shantibala et.al, 2014)[17].  In addition, they created a special database called "MEIMAN" based on a survey of 51 edible insects in Manipur. This database served as an influential tool for managing edible insects sustainably by assessing insect biodiversity to create new resources and industrialise existing ones. Observations made by Lokeshwary and Singh (2019)[18], explored the vespid wasp, Vespa basalis (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) consumed by the local Tangkhul-Nagas tribe in Manipur's Ukhrul district. It is discovered to be in harmony with the culture in the society due to very delicious in taste. Pupae and full-grown instars are eaten raw or fried.

According to an investigation, the Mao-Naga and Poumai-Naga tribes tribe from Senapati district of Manipur, ingest a total of 53 and 51 species of insects respectively, belonging 9 orders and 18 families.  Most of species consumed by both tribes are from Hymenoptera order. (Kapesa, K., 2020)[19]. Babu and Singh (2021)20 identified 31 insect species under 19 families and 7 orders as palatable form by the Meitei community in the wetland ecosystems of Manipur valleys. These edible insects ensure the sustainability of livelihoods of majority of local landless women by harvesting and selling them. In a study, range of protein and carbohydrate per gm was found 105.6 to 314.2 mg and 3,68 to 78,68 mg respectively in 15 edible insect species of Manipur, more protein than traditional animal protein was identified in the majority of these edible insects, but very little carbohydrate. These insects are essential in supplying the inhabitants of Manipur with a convenient source of protein. (Singh R. K., et.al.,2015)²¹. Natasha A. et.al. (2013)²² consolidate a systematic list of edible Orthopteran insects of Manipur including 15 species under 15 genera and 3 families. Manipuri people consumed mostly adult insects in roasted or fried form. The nutritional value of the bamboo worm, Omphisa fuscidentalis, which is consumed by various ethnic communities in Manipur and used to support their economies, was provided by Sheileja T. (2022)²³. It is regarded as being especially delicious due to its high protein (30.55%) and fat (43.1%) content as well as significant amounts of potassium, calcium, and ascorbic acid.

Assam:

Assamese ethnic groups, especially those from the Dhemaji, Morigaon, Udalguri, Baksa, and Karbi Anglong districts, practise entomophagy widely, and it is deeply ingrained in their culture. In Assam, people eat about 67 different edible insect species from 27 different families and 8 different orders. Doley and Kalita²⁴ identified 15 species of edible insects that belonged to 15 genera and 12 families in their 2012 study on entomophagy in the Mishing tribes of Assam's Dhemaji region, most of which were related to the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera order. They claimed that the Mishings tribe preferred to eat giant water bugs, Eri silkworms, Muga silkworms, and house crickets in their infancy stages, such as the egg, larva, pupa, and nymph, as well as the adults of these creatures. 16 edible terrestrial insect species from 6 orders (Lepidoptera, Orthoptera. Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Blattodea, Hemiptera) were identified by Dutta et al.²⁵ in the Moridhal Panchayat in the Dhemaji district of Assam. Locals enjoyed eating adult crickets (Tarbinskiellus sp.), mole crickets (Gryllotalpa sp.), short horned grasshoppers (Choroedocus sp.), long horned grasshoppers (Mecopoda elongate elongate), cicadas (Pomponia sp.), and short horned grasshoppers (Eupreponotus sp). They ate termites (Odontotermes sp.)   (Odontotermes sp.) in the alate stage.  The entomophagy performed by the Tiwa community in Morigaon district was documented by Rahman et al.²⁶ in 2018. They discovered that the Tiwa people in Morigaon district ingested 15 kinds of insects from 6 orders and 14 families. They noted the various nutritional benefits of eating insects. recording the highest protein and lipid content (19.8% & 8.3%) in giant water bugs and highest carbohydrate content (5.1%) in crickets.

In 2010, Ronghang and Ahmed²⁷ published a study on entomophagy in the Karbi Anglong district. The highest insect consumers among the ethnic groups were discovered to be the Karbis and Rengma Nagas, who consumed 32 species of edible insect species. They claimed that the majority of the tribes in the Karbi Anglong district favour the Eri-Silk worm (Samia ricini) and Red ants (Myrmica rubra) and during the Assamese festival known as Bohagi Bihu, the Ahom Community serves Red ants (Myrmica rubra) as one of the meal dishes. Hazarika and Goyari (2017)²⁸, observed the practise of entomophagy among the Bodos in the Udalguri district claiming 23 edible insect species belonging to orders Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, Isoptera, and Odonata. They noted that the two most popular edible insect species in their society were the Giant water bug (Lethocerus indicus) and the Eri silk worm larvae (Samia ricini). Using data from 19 species belonging to 13 families, 16 genera, and 6 orders, Langthasa, S. et al. (2018)²⁹ describe the edible insect resources and their therapeutic usage among the Dimasa Kacharis of Dima Hasao district, Assam, of which 11 species are well-known for their medicinal as well as food worth. In the Baksa district of Assam, three hemipteran species of aquatic edible insects that are sold in regular local markets as a common Assamese dish were the subject of a study by Das et al. in 2019³⁰. In the Bodoland territorial region of Assam, Kalita, T. (2022)³¹, identified 25 edible insect species in 9 orders and 18 families. Biochemical study demonstrated that these insects are a good source of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. These are eaten in fried, smoked, uncooked, paste, roasted, or curry form by the Bodo, Rabha, Garo, and Saharia scheduled tribes. Choudhary and Hazarika³² evaluated the biochemical characteristics of the edible insects namely, the muga, eri, green grasshopper, temite, honey, and red ant, consumed by the tribal people of Assam's Kamrup area. This study identified muga larvae with the greatest protein amount and the adults of honey bees with lowest cholesterol amount.

Using coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), Choudhary et al. (2020)³³ evaluated the proximate and mineral composition of two edible insects, Samia cynthia ricini and Dytiscus marginalis, which are frequently consumed by Bodo tribes in Assam. Both insect species had high protein and fat contents as well as significant quantity of essential minerals. The Koch-Rajbongshis of North Salmara subdivision of Bongaigaon district, Assam, consume 17 species of edible insects as good nutritional supplements of a balanced diet. These insects belong to 6 orders, including Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and Isoptera. They are eaten raw, fried, or roasted. (Das S., et.al. 2019)³⁴. According to Kalita, S. et al. (2020)³⁵, eating and rearing pupa of the eri silkworm (Samia ricini), giant water bug (Lethocerus indicus), burrowing crickets (Brachytrupes portentosus), and social wasp (Vespa magnifica) were the most prevalent habits in the Chirang area of Assam.

Arunachal Pradesh:

The indigenous people of Arunachal Pradesh are specialists in consuming the largest number of 158 insect species.  Insects that are edible to humans are harvested from the forest and either consumed whole and uncooked or prepared with veggies and seasonings.  Some species are available year-round, while others are only available during certain times of the year.  In a thorough field investigation, it was discovered that the Wangcho (Wancho) and Nocte tribes of the Tirap District and the Shingpo, Tangsa, Deori, and Chakma tribes of the Changlang District consumed 51 edible insect species, representing 9 orders. The Coleoptera group had the most edible species with 14, followed by the Orthoptera and Hymenoptera with 10 each, the Hemiptera with 9, the Lepidoptera with 2, the Isoptera with 2, and the Ephemeroptera with one each. (Chakrovorty, J. et.al., 2013)³⁶. According to a study, the Adi and Apatani tribes accept 65 insect species from 30 families and 9 orders as food, including 15 species of Orthoptera, 12 species of Odonata, 11 species of Coleoptera, 10 species of Hymenoptera, 9 species of Hemiptera, 5 species of Lepidoptera, and one species each of Ephemeroptera, Isoptera, and Mantodea. The Apatani value odonata highly, whilst the Adi prefer eating orthopterans. (J. Chakrovorty and colleagues, 2019)³⁷. Gegoi. R. et. al. (2022)³⁸ found that the two tribes (Tangsa and Wancho) in the Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh, take eleven insect species from six orders as food. The three most popular edible insects in their regular diet with high nutritional value are Apis indica, Oecophylla smaragdina (Hymenoptera), and Macrotermes sp. (Isoptera). An enormous variety of insects are consumed year-round by the Komkar subtribe of the Adis residing in Arunachal Pradesh, with particular species predominating at certain times. The consumption of the stink insect, Aspongopus nepalensis, often known as "tari" locally, increases in the winter. Throughout the year, weaver ants, bees, and wasps' larvae, pupae, and even adults are eaten. ( K. Megu et al. ,2018)³⁹. In the East Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, which is largely populated by the Adi tribe, Philosamia ricini is a commercially produced insect species used as food, according to Singh and colleagues (2013)⁴⁰. Pradesh A. (2011) identified nutritionally relevant fatty acids and macro- and micronutrient content in Aspongopus nepalensis   (Hemiptera), an insect used as food by the ethnic people of Arunachal Pradesh⁴¹. Crude lipids comprised up 38.35% of the macronutrients, followed by fibre, protein, 10.6%, moisture, 41.9%, and ash, 2.1%.. Two common edible Orthoptera species consumed the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh, the short-horned grasshopper, Chondacris rosea and the mole cricket, Brachytrupes orientalis were evaluated for their nutritional value by Chakrovorty, J. et, al⁴² in 2014. Crude protein content in C. rosea and B. orientalis is 68.88 and 65.74%, lipid content is 7.88 and 6.33%, crude fibre is 12.38 and 8.75%, ash is 4.16 and 4.33%, and carbohydrate content is 6.69% and 15.18%, respectively. In 2016, Jharna Chakrovoty and associates, assessed the dietary contents of two other common termite species , Oecophylla smaragdina and Odontotermes sp.,  relished by tribal people in Arunachal Pradesh⁴³. O. smaragdina and Odontotermes sp. both had protein contents of 55.28 and 33.67%, fat contents of 14.99 and 50.93%, 19.84 and 6.30% fibre, 2.59 and 3.01% ash, and carbohydrate contents of 7.30 and 6.09%, respectively. In 2018, Chakravorty, J. et. al., analysed the nutritional potentials of Ducetia japonica and Phyllozelus sp., two tettigoniid orthopteran insect species containing 56.28% and 61.57% protein, 14.99% and 7.93% fat, 11.84% and 8.30% fiber, 4.59 % and 3.01 % ash and 11.84% and 19.19% carbohydrates respectively⁴⁴. The most prevalent minerals in above all species were iron, zinc, and copper, with significant levels of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium as well.  These two termite species also have strong antioxidant levels, which Raza, M. and colleagues found in 2022^45. Insects with a high nutritional value that the Galo tribe of Arunachal Pradesh consumes include Tair, Takom, Tari, and Tachai, as well as Gapu, Tak Tapum, Mirbo, Tanyi, and Reli, according to research conducted in Tirbin and Kangku circle of West Siang district. (Baruah and Bhattacharyya, 2019)⁴⁶.

Nagaland:

Nine orders including 29 families, and 92 different species of edible insects have been reported to be eaten by numerous Naga tribes i.e., Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Khiamnuingan, Konyak, Lotha, and Sumi. (Pongener et al., 2019; Loganathan and Haldhar, 2020)^47,48. Another study (Mozhui, L. et. al., 2020)⁴⁹ found that the local Naga tribes regarded 106 insect species from 32 families and 9 orders as healthy diets. Majority of edible insects are eaten heated, deep-fried, stewed, or roasted like Cossus sp., the larvae and pupae of ants, bees, wasps, and hornets, while honey, bee comb, and bee wax in raw form. According to research by Srivastava and colleagues (2009)⁵⁰, the tribal inhabitants of Nagaland's Phek, Dimapur, and Kohima districts eat grasshoppers, crickets, red ants, and mulberry silkworm larva. In addition, 82 species of insects from 9 orders (Odonata, Orthoptera, Mantodea, Isoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera) were documented by Mozhul and colleagues in 2017⁵¹. These insects are a significant traditional food source, primarily consumed by seven tribal communities in Nagaland. Alino and Imtikala (2022)⁵² conducted extensive research to determine the nutritional value of eleven species of edible insects from various orders and families that the Sumi Nagas consume. As per Tyagi (1981)⁵³, the Angami Nagas, an ethnic group from Nagaland, used the mature dragonflies as a dessert or a refreshment. Whereas the Vespa mandarinia, the largest hornet in the world, is regarded as a pest in western nations, the V. mandarinia's larvae, pupae, and adult are healthy foods that are well-liked by Nagaland's various ethnic people. (Kiewhuo et. al., 2022)⁵⁴

People in Nagaland collect stink bugs, silkworms, bees, dragonflies, tawny mole crickets, and red ants from jungles and rice paddies, eat as a healthy source of food, thus sell it in nearby marketplaces to help feed their families and fight hunger.  (Norris, W., 2013)⁵⁵

Carpenter worm larvae (Cossus spp.) have great significance as an exotic dietary supplement among the local Naga community, according to a study by Aochen and colleagues (2020)⁵⁶. Locally called as "Loungu," it is a substantial source of dietary components and contains sizeable levels of protein and fat. It also exhibits antioxidant potential due to its high phenolic and pigment content.

Meghalaya:

The nutrient content of reproductive and worker forms of the underground termite Reticulitermes, which is eaten in Meghalaya, was investigated by Paul and Dey in 2011⁵⁷. It was discovered to contain more minerals than their typical diet and to be a healthy source of protein, carbohydrates, and even fat. They also evaluated the nutritional value of various Meghalaya wild edible insects, including termites and lepidopteran caterpillars⁵⁸. Locals refer to the several species of devoured caterpillars as Niang Phlang, Niang long, Niang wad, and Niang tnum, while termites are known as Kber. The carbohydrate, protein, mineral, and vitamin composition of the fifth instar larvae of the silkworm Bombyx mori, also known as Niang ryndai locally, was examined in their 2013 study⁵⁹. It is a favourite food insect among the Meghalaya locals. In comparison to typical meals, they discovered these caterpillars and termites to be a very good dietary supply. The livelihoods of the underprivileged and poorer segments of society can be significantly improved by local trade of these edible insects in culinary goods. Termites and prepupa silkworms are   most consumed insects in Meghalaya, pre pupa silkworms are also consumed ((Chowdhury et al., 2015, Sangma et al., 2016)^60,61.

Since insects are a good source of proteins and lipids, many people in North East India's ethnic tribes practise entomophagy, which is also used medicinally and as part of culture. Many experts and researchers from North East India have identified more than 250 species of insects. Insects are beneficial to us in many ways, including their high nutritional content, capacity for rapid reproduction, simplicity of upkeep, and capacity for growth on trash. Insects are a common source of income for many people, either directly through the collection and sale of insects as food or indirectly through the sale of their by-products. Therefore, entomophagy needs to be made more widely known through various awareness campaigns.  It is necessary to conduct more study on the best ways to cultivate insects on a large scale, as well as which species would be best suited for this use, especially in north-east regions of India. Additionally, research on the handling, security, and guidelines for handling insects for human consumption must continue.

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