For verification of this paper, please visit on http://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/innovation.php#8

Radicalisation is a phased and complex process when a person or organisation adopts a radical ideology or belief that supports, tolerates, or employs violence including acts of terrorism to further their political or ideological goals (European Commission).One of the biggest threats to international security is the growing issue of jihadist radicalisation, which embodies the intricate relationship between society dynamics, technology, and ideology. Radicalisation in India is consistent with its jihadist leanings which entail the acceptance and dissemination of radical Islamist ideas that justify the use of violence to further ideological and political objectives.

The introduction of the internet and the quick spread of social media platforms in the modern era have drastically changed the global and Indian contexts of radicalisation. In addition to enabling connectivity, these technological developments have developed into effective instruments for spreading radical ideas and enlisting people in radical movements. The global dynamics of radicalisation processes, including those within India's diverse social structure, have been profoundly expanded by such changes in communication and information transmission. There are a ton of chances on the Web to pursue causes, even extremist ones. In general, the Internet provides advantages over more conventional forms of communication, such as a high degree of confidentiality, affordability, ease of use, accessibility, interactivity, resistance to governmental regulation, and the ability to get around the limitations of traditional media (Marone).The complex connection between India's religious, socio-political, and economic diversity creates an environment that is conducive to extreme elements. Thus, it becomes crucial to understand the nuanced role that social media and the Internet play in the spread of jihadist radicalisation inside Indian borders to develop effective counterstrategies that preserve India’s national security interests.

Evolution of Jihadist Radicalisation in the era of Internet and social media.

The emergence of social media and the internet has been crucial to the globalisation of Jihadi radicalisation. At first, the Internet existed as a medium for communication and sharing of knowledge. However, it changed into an interactive environment that supported user-generated content and promoted online communities with the introduction of Web 2.0 and further technological progress. This metamorphosis made it easier for radical ideas to disseminate swiftly, particularly among terrorist groups.

With the rise in popularity of social media sites like Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, and Twitter, as well as encrypted messaging services like WhatsApp and Telegram, individuals may now instantly communicate with one another worldwide, primarily through the use of captivating pictures and videos (Bipartisan Policy Center). Most of these free services can be utilized under a pseudonym and are user-friendly. Al-Qaeda ISIS Taliban and Lashkar-e-Tayyiba’s adept usage of these platforms to disseminate propaganda, recruit members, and coordinate activities exemplifies the transformative impact of the internet on jihadist movements (European Foundation for South Asian Studies).

According to Dr S Jaishankar, social media and the Internet have evolved into "potent instruments in the toolkit of terrorist and militant groups" for disseminating conspiracy theories and radicalisation (Laskar).Moreover, Websites, blogs, and social media platforms function as online gathering places for the dissemination of extremist information and the indoctrination of vulnerable individuals. Additionally, platforms such as Telegram and WhatsApp have facilitated secure contact among radical elements by offering encrypted places for discussion forums and chat rooms that have been favourable to radicalisation.

Terrorist organisations active in India have demonstrated an impressive capacity to leverage technical progress for radicalisation. They have adeptly exploited various online tools and strategies, from disseminating persuasive narratives through sophisticated videos and graphics to employing encryption techniques for covert communication. Terrorists are using VPNs to make contact with their handlers in Pakistan (Times Now Digital) and secure messaging applications have enabled jihadists to operate clandestinely, evading surveillance measures employed by law enforcement agencies and posing a security threat to India.

Theoretical Perspective: Understanding Jihadist Radicalisation and the role of internet and social media.

The phenomenon of jihadist radicalisation is a multi-layered and intricate process deeply rooted in socio-political, cultural, and ideological contexts. It has attracted considerable attention because of its widespread influence, particularly in India. Fundamentally, it describes the transformation of an individual's perspective to accept radical ideas based on radical interpretations of Islam therefore frequently endorsing violence as a way to fulfil envisioned political, religious, or social objectives. The idea entails a turn towards accepting ideas that depart against established social standards, supporting theories that justify violence, and encouraging a fanatical mentality. The path of radicalisation frequently begins with feelings of alienation, disenfranchisement, or perceived injustice, which makes it easy for extremist recruiters to take advantage of weak points in the targeted candidate pool. The procedure is carried out in stages. It begins with pre-radicalisation, in which people are exposed to radical narratives and ideas, such events are frequently helped by online forums, social media or charismatic recruiters.

Comprehending the process of jihadist radicalisation necessitates looking at multiple theoretical stances that clarify the complex dynamics involved. In examining jihadist radicalisation in India through varied theoretical lenses, a coherent understanding of this complex phenomenon emerges. The Social Identity Theory (Brewer) underscores how social connections, particularly fostered by social media platforms, construct group identities aligned with extremist ideologies. Individuals susceptible to radicalisation find solidarity in these online communities, amplifying their commitment to radical causes. Concurrently, the Cognitive Theory of Radicalisation (Wolfowicz et al.) elucidates that continuous exposure to radical narratives on the internet reshapes cognitive processes, normalising extreme beliefs and accelerating the radicalisation trajectory. Complementing this, the Social Learning Theory (Cherry) emphasises that exposure to extremist content on social media influences individual opinions and behaviours, fostering normalisation and reinforcement of radical ideologies within online networks. Framing Theory (Zamith) sheds light on the way jihadist organizations strategically shape narratives through social media, influencing perceptions by emphasizing grievances or glorifying violence, garnering sympathy for radical causes. Furthermore, the Radicalisation to Violent Extremism (RVE) Theory (Borum) examines the transition from radical beliefs to violent actions, considering socio-political factors prevalent in India that facilitate this transition. Finally, the Religious Fanaticism Theory (Kalu) underlines the fervent adherence to extreme religious ideologies, highlighting how selective interpretations disseminated online intensify ideological adherence among susceptible individuals. These theories collectively illuminate the intricate interplay between online platforms, cognitive processes, narratives, and ideological fervour, elucidating the structures driving jihadist radicalisation. Hence, a theoretical understanding of the concept of jihadist radicalisation is crucial to developing all-encompassing measures that attempt to suppress its proliferation and mitigate the detrimental effects it has on social cohesion and safety.

Mechanism of Jihadist Radicalisation through the internet and social media.

1. Recruitment and propaganda strategies: Terrorists leverage websites, information sharing, data mining, fundraising, communication, and social media to carry out their recruitment and propaganda strategies. Through a variety of multimedia mediums, such as photos, motion pictures, and written content, these groups intentionally disseminate radical perspectives.  These kinds of content tend to appeal to individuals who are susceptible to being convinced by radical themes as they frequently honour violence, defend radical behaviour, and present a positive picture of jihadi terrorism (Awan). For example, after Burhan Wani's death, radicals and terrorists were able to use social media to circulate freely images and videos of his funeral with added propaganda messages which exacerbated the turmoil in J&K (European Foundation for South Asian Studies). The opportunity was grabbed for more Recruitment through images with short and crisp targeted messaging. Personalised text, images and high-quality videos on telegram or Nandbox, coupled with persuasive narratives eulogising the death of terrorists calling them “freedom fighters” and using vocabulary such as “Occupation, resistance, and freedom struggle” to radicalise vulnerable young people to join them by providing a feeling of purpose and connection inside the jihadi movement (Taneja & Shah).

2. Online communication and echo chambers: The internet and social media proffer terrorists and radicals the competence to communicate, collaborate and indoctrinate their targeted individuals. There are significant quantities of radical materials available online, and this volume is growing daily.The availability of radical information serves as an "echo chamber”, a space where people may discover other people who share their views and have their beliefs validated (Behr, et al.). Moreover, based on individual choices, social media algorithms frequently amplify information, which creates isolated online groups that encourage radicalisation (Amit et al.). Jihadist organisations take advantage of these echo chambers by tricking social media algorithms into showing personalised content to specific users. This material reinforces extreme ideas, isolates individuals who share different viewpoints, and creates a sense of camaraderie among members of a closed-off online group with comparable radical opinions.

3. Psychological and behavioural Aspect: The radicalisation process that is aided by the internet and social media is heavily influenced by psychological and behavioural factors. The radicalisation process consists of three main phases where recruiters use psychological manipulation over the internet to change the targeted individuals' behaviour and indoctrinate them into becoming radicals. The first stage is psychological submission, also known as emotional radicalisation, persuasive and aggressive online communicative radical content is familiarised to create a false sense of reality. In the second stage, known as doctrinal radicalisation or political-religious indoctrination, the recruiter uses psychological manipulation approaches to instil a new ideology and shift their moral compass that normalises extremist views. The last phase of violent disinhibition and legitimisation, commonly referred to as violent radicalisation causes people to become desensitised to the extent to which using violence to further an idealised larger good is justified (González et al.).

Case Reports

1. Mehdi Masroor Biswas, a 24-year-old engineer employed in Bengaluru as a manufacturing executive for a multinational company, was arrested in 2015 for running the pro-jihadi Twitter account @ShamiWitness 17,700 followers, which encouraged Islamic State (IS) recruits (Chowdhury).

2. Tania Parveen was a college student who was radicalised and recruited online by LeT cadres headquartered in Pakistan. Along with accused LeT women's wing cadre Ayesha Burhan, who lives in Pakistan and engages in illegal activities, she co-admins several social media sites that promote secessionist views on Kashmir. Through these forums, she radicalises, recruits, and inspires others to wage cyberwar against India. Sayyad M. Idris, Tania Parveen, and Ayesha were planning to fight the State by brainwashing young people and spreading the beliefs of LeT, a banned terrorist group (National Investigative Agency).

3. The Kozhikode train burning case involved a 27-year-old Sharukh Saifi, who had become radicalised by social media propaganda supporting violent extremism and Jihad, which was spread by radical Islamic preachers from both foreign and Indian countries. During this process, he used social media to follow hardline and extreme Islamic preachers, especially those from Pakistan and Menk. He had become radicalised online and carried out the arson as a Jihadi terror attack (National Investigative Agency).

National Security Concerns Regarding Online Jihadist Radicalisation.

1. Cyber security: India faces significant cybersecurity challenges as a result of the rise in jihadist radicalisation via social media and the internet. Terrorists have knocked out WhatsApp an encrypted platform and shifted to private communication apps on the Google Play Store such as ICQ, Wickr, and Jabber. These applications have been used by terrorist organisations for internal communication, which includes radicalising young people and disseminating stimulating speeches. Terrorist groups are now formally using these applications to plan attacks (Nigam). Terrorists have been able to recruit, intensify planning, training, and plotting, as well as launch new attack techniques, through the use of disruptive and emerging cyber technology. Terrorists would therefore probably use easily accessible and cost-effective technology to enhance their strategies and methods of causing damage to the nation’s crucial cyber infrastructure as well (NCTC, DHS, FBI).Additionally, Identifying, tracking, and neutralising jihadist networks operating in cyberspace requires cybersecurity standards to be updated constantly because of the rapid expansion of digital platforms. The ubiquitous, anonymous and pseudonymous nature of the internet has given terrorists an advantageous operational area from which to launch cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, disseminate hate speech online, and recruit, organise, and carry out terror attacks gets accommodating (Juyal).

2. Impact on youth and society Jihadist Radicalisation through the internet and social media significantly impacts youth and societal dynamics in India. Young individuals, often impressionable and vulnerable, are targeted by jihadist groups through online platforms, leading to their radicalisation and recruitment into extremist movements. It should come as no surprise that the internet is contributing more to youth radicalisation and unfortunately self-radicalisation. It spreads a variety of messages to attract possible recruits. This is accomplished by spreading oversimplified ideas about intricate regional and global social, economic, and political problems, typically with a direct, violent resolution (Dornbierer). Consequently, radicals operating on the ground employ popular culture-inspired materials such as poetry, songs, and slogans like "Afzal, the revolution will come from your blood; Afzal, we are ashamed, your murderers are alive; India will break into pieces InshaAllah"(Gupta) and "Nara-e-Takhdeer, Allah-hu-Akhbar"(Somani) which present anti-nationalist sentiments in an appealing manner on campuses and in protests over social, economic and political issues.

3. Impact on Internal Security: The proliferation of jihadist radicalisation through the internet and social media causes a serious threat to India's internal security landscape. Internet jihadist radicalisation in India extends beyond international jihadist organisations like the AQIS or ISKP encompassing regional factions like the Indian Mujahideen, JeM, LeT, the Taliban, and other online vernacular (Rasheed). In connection with the “ISIS terror conspiracy case”, the National Investigation Agency detained fifteen radical individuals who were associated with the violent extremist ideology of terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS terrorists. These individuals had formed a terrorist gang aimed at organising religious teachings to instigate violent jihad and establish Islamic governance in India (ET Online). Nevertheless, the seizure of the PFI “Vision Document 2047” (Sharma) revealed the nefarious agenda of numerous indoctrinated cadre to the establishment of an Islamic govt in India. The possibility of individuals being radicalised by these groups and their engagement in violent acts due to exposure to extremist content on the internet can cause social unrest in the country and present difficulties for internal security institutions.

Countermeasures

Countermeasures work in tandem, addressing different stages of the radicalisation process while encompassing prevention (anti-radicalisation), intervention (de-radicalisation) and disruption (counter-radicalisation) strategies to create comprehensive and sustainable approaches to counter-jihadist radicalisation in India.

India’s response to countering Jihadist Radicalisation via the Internet and social media.

i. Internet Surveillance: The Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR) in India developed NETRA (Network Traffic Analysis), as a tool for network surveillance to monitor the online activity of suspected radical entities. NETRA can find and filter keywords such as ‘attack’, ‘bomb’ and ‘terrorist’ even with encrypted text messages (Gupta &Muttoo).

ii. De-radicalisation Programs: De-radicalisation programmes initiatives have been carried out by government and security forces to rehabilitate people who are vulnerable to extremist ideologies through guidance, counselling, and activities like discussions, debates, correspondence, workshops, and sports (Nagial).

iii. Legislative Measures: India has implemented stringent laws to counter radicalisation and terrorist activities, such as the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and the National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act (Ministry of Home Affairs), providing legal frameworks to combat extremist threats. MHA has created the Counter Terrorism and Counter Radicalisation Division and the Cyber and Information Security Division (PIB Delhi) to address the issues relating to terrorism, counter-radicalisation, cyber security, cybercrime and information security.

Further recommendations

i. Collaboration of Government, and civil society with Social media and Tech companies such as Google, Meta, X (twitter), telegram etc, to develop effective strategies to take down radical and terror content and prohibit its proliferation through the Internet and social media. Encourage these entities to develop community standards to proactively identify and eliminate extremist materials.

ii. Blocking access for people to terrorist chat rooms, groups, and channels. This entails preventing access to the media pages and websites that are accessible on the web, which also includes the dark net.

iii. Implementation of new regulations to swiftly act against those disseminating extremist content online while ensuring the protection of civil liberties and freedom of speech.

iv. Countering terrorist propaganda of romanticising jihad by creating compelling counterpropaganda that undermines extremist ideologies and highlights the destructive consequences of embracing jihadist beliefs.

v. Counter Radical narratives by leveraging the influence of religious leaders, community influencers and credible voices in society to propagate messages of peace, harmony, tolerance, and national integration.

vi. Introduce comprehensive educational programs targeting schools, colleges, and communities to raise awareness about the dangers of radical and terrorist ideologies spread through the internet and social media. Encourage them to report such content when it is identified.

vii. Promotion of digital literacy Awareness programs targeting youth and vulnerable populations to raise sensitivity about the dangers of online jihadist radicalisation and promote critical thinking skills among them.

viii. Develop and implement rehabilitation programs for individuals vulnerable to radicalisation, offering psychological support, education and opportunities for reintegration into society.

1. Amit, Sajid, et al. “Countering Violent Extremism Using Social Media and Preventing Implementable Strategies for Bangladesh.” Heliyon, vol. 7, no. 5, May 2021, p. e07121, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07121.

2. Awan, Imran .Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the Power of Social Media. Apr. 2017,

www.researchgate.net/publication/315212548_Cyber-Extremism_Isis_and_the_Power_of_Social_Media.

3. Behr, Ines von , et al. “Radicalization in the Digital Era.” Rand.org, 2013, www.rand.org/randeurope/research/projects/internet-and-radicalisation.html.

4. Bipartisan Policy Center. Digital Counterterrorism: Fighting Jihadists Online. 2018.

5. Borum, Randy. “Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories.” Journal of Strategic Security, vol. 4, no. 4, Dec. 2011, pp. 7–36, https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1.

6. Brewer, Marilynn B. “The Many Faces of Social Identity: Implications for Political Psychology.” Political Psychology, vol. 22, no. 1, 2001, pp. 115–125, www.jstor.org/stable/3791908.

7. Cherry, Kendra. “How Social Learning Theory Works.” Verywell Mind, 14 Oct. 2022, www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074.

8. Chowdhury, Sagnik . “Mehdi Masroor Biswas: Terror’s Propaganda Tweets via Gulf, India.” The Indian Express, 20 Nov. 2015, indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/mehdi-masroor-biswas-terrors-propaganda-tweets-via-gulf-india/.

9. “Digital Jihad: Online Communication and Violent Extremism.” ISPI, 25 Nov. 2019, www.ispionline.it/en/publication/digital-jihad-online-communication-and-violent-extremism-24459.9. Dornbierer, Andrew . “How Al-Qaeda Recruits Online.” Thediplomat.com, 13 Sept. 2011, thediplomat.com/2011/09/how-al-qaeda-recruits-online/.

10. ET Online. “ISIS Terror Conspiracy Case: 15 Arrested Following NIA Raids in Maharashtra, Karnataka.” The Economic Times, 9 Dec. 2023, economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/isis-terror-conspiracy-case-13-arrested-following-nia-raids-in-maharashtra-karnataka/articleshow/105853664.cms.

11. European Commission. “Prevention of Radicalisation.” Home-Affairs.ec.europa.eu, home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/internal-security/counter-terrorism-and-radicalisation/prevention-radicalisation_en#:~:text=Radicalisation%20is%20a%20phased%20and.

12. European Foundation for South Asian Studies. “Pan-Islamism and Radicalization of Kashmiri Youth.” Www.efsas.org, June 2017, www.efsas.org/publications/study-papers/pan-islamism-and-radicalization-of-kashmiri-youth/.

13. “Social Media Strategies and Online Narratives of Terrorist Organizations; Case Studies of Al-Qaeda, ISIS, Taliban and Lashkar-e-Taiba.” Www.efsas.org, June 2020,www-efsas-org.translate.goog/publications/study-papers/social-media-strategies-online-narratives-of-terrorists-groups-al-qaeda-isis-taliban-lashkar/?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=hi&_x_tr_hl=hi&_x_tr_pto=tc.

14. González, Irene, et al. “Evidence of Psychological Manipulation in the Process of Violent Radicalization: An Investigation of the 17-A Cell.” Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 13, 23 Feb. 2022, p. 789051, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8905186/, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.789051.

15. Gupta, Rajan, and Sunil Kumar Muttoo. “Internet Traffic Surveillance & Network Monitoring in India: Case Study of NETRA.” Network Protocols and Algorithms, vol. 8, no. 4, 15 Jan. 2017, p. 1, https://doi.org/10.5296/npa.v8i4.10179.

16. Gupta, Rohit . “JNU मेंदेशद्रोहकासामनेआयानयावीडियो, भारततेरेटुकड़ेहोंगे...इंशाअल्लाह...इंशाअल्लाह.” आजतक, 15 Feb. 2016, www.aajtak.in/india/story/jnu-row-pro-afzal-guru-slogans-in-new-video-released-by-abvp-leader-rohit-chahal-361090-2016-02-15.

17. Juyal, Rebant. “Cybersecurity and Threats Cyberterrorism and the Order Today.” Journal of Defence Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, 2021, pp. 65–109, www.idsa.in/system/files/jds/cybersecurity-and-threats-15-2-2021-juyal.pdf.

18. Kalu, Chukwuma Amogu .RELIGIOUS FANATICISM and GLOBAL INSECURITY in the 21 ST

CENTURY: A CASE STUDY of BOKO-HARAM in NIGERIA. Feb. 2021,www.researchgate.net/publication/349694240_RELIGIOUS_FANATICISM_AND_GLOBAL_INSECURITY_IN_THE_21_

ST_CENTURY_A_CASE_STUDY_OF_BOKOHARAM_IN_NIGERIA_BY_KALU_

CHUKWUMA_AMOGU_PhD_DEPARTMENT_OF_RELIGION_

FACULTY_OF_HUMANITIES.

19. Laskar, Rezaul H. “India Calls for Efforts to Combat Terrorists’ Use of Internet, Social Media.” Hindustan Times, Hindustan Times, 29 Oct. 2022, www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/india-calls-for-efforts-to-combat-terrorists-use-of-internet-social-media-101667048700565.html.

20. Ministry of Home Affairs. Counter Terrorism and Counter Radicalisation (CTCR) Division (Section-Wise Work Allocation). www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-07/CTCRDivisionworkallocation_08072023.pdf.

21. Nagial, Colonel Balwan Singh. “Indian Army Strives to Bring about Social Mobility in J&K.” The Times of India, 21 Nov. 2022, timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/col-nagial/indian-army-strives-to-bring-about-social-mobility-in-jk/.

22. National Investigative Agency. NIA CHARGESHEETS SELF-RADICALISED ACCUSED in KOZHIKODE TRAIN ARSON CASE in KERALA. 30 Sept. 2023, nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/News/1286_1_news.pdf.

23. NIA Files Charge Sheet against Three Operatives of Lashkar-e-Taiba ( LeT) in LeT Online Recruitment Module Case (RC-20/2020/NIA/DLI). 5 May 2021, nia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/News/737_1_Pr.pdf.

NCTC, DHS, FBI. Emerging Technologies May Heighten Terrorist Threats. 2022.24. Nigam, Chayyanika . “Jihadist Groups Using Encrypted Apps for Communication, Intel Agencies Warn.” India Today, 5 Feb. 2018, www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/popular-apps-turn-terror-tools-for-jihadists-1162001-2018-02-04.

25. PIB Delhi. “Creation of CTCR and CIS Divisions in MHA.” Pib.gov.in, 7 Feb. 2018, pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1519500.

26. “Union Home Minister Amit Shah Chairs First Session on “Global Trends in Terrorist Financing and Terrorism” Theme of the 3rd “No Money for Terror” Ministerial Conference in New Delhi Today.” Www.pib.gov.in, 18 Nov. 2022, www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1876948.

27. Rasheed, Adil. “Jihadist Radicalisation in India: Internal Challenges, External Threats.” Journal of Defence Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, 2018, pp. 77–103, idsa.in/system/files/jds/jds-12-2-2018-jihadist-radicalisation-in-india.pdf.

28. Sharma, Nupur J. “Exclusive Breakdown of PFI “India Vision 2047”: Establishment of Islamic Govt, Murder of “Coward Hindus”, Arms Training, Infiltration of Judiciary and More.” OpIndia, 14 July 2022, www.opindia.com/2022/07/exclusive-full-breakdown-pfi-india-vision-2047-islamic-govt-murder-hindus-arms-training-more/.

29. Somani, Siddhi. “Students in NCC Uniforms Raise “Nara-e-Takhdeer, Allah-Hu-Akhbar” Slogans in Aligarh Muslim University.” OpIndia, 26 Jan. 2023, www.opindia.com/2023/01/students-in-ncc-uniforms-raise-nara-e-takhdeer-allah-hu-akhbar-slogans-in-aligarh-muslim-university/.

30. Taneja, Kabir, and Khalid Shah. “The Social Media Anatomy of New Radical Groups in Kashmir.” GNET, 24 Feb. 2021, gnet-research.org/2021/02/24/the-social-media-anatomy-of-new-radical-groups-in-kashmir/.

31. Times Now Digital. “Internet Being Misused in Kashmir; Terrorists in Touch with Pakistan through VPN: J&K DGP.” Www.timesnownews.com, 5 Feb. 2020, www.timesnownews.com/india/article/internet-being-misused-in-kashmir-terrorists-in-touch-with-pakistan-through-vpn-jk-dgp/549868.

32. Wolfowicz, Michael, et al. “Cognitive and Behavioral Radicalization: A Systematic Review of the Putative Risk and Protective Factors.” Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 17, no. 3, 20 July 2021, https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1174.

33. Zamith, Rodrigo. “2.2: Framing Theory.” Social Sci LibreTexts, 22 Aug. 2022, socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Journalism_and_Mass_Communication/The_American_Journalism_Handbook_-_Concepts_Issues_and_Skills_(Zamith)/02%3A_Media_Effects/2.02%3A_Framing_Theory.