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Solid Waste Management is a major problem and challenge to urban areas all over the world. It is growing at a higher speed than urbanization itself. Exposure to Solid Waste at individual level, sorting, collection and disposal or recycling by personnel of the city municipal administration causes grave impact on their health and well-being. Its hazardous impact has led to social scientists and environmentalists to consider it as the top priority environmental and public health challenge.

This paper is based on a short study conducted in the city of Bengaluru, a fast-growing metropolis, which is under severe threat to its people, who are affected by the challenge of meeting large quantities of solid waste generation, disposal, and management. Sociological analysis has found that poor management of the process of collection and disposal of solid waste, is affecting various social and professional categories of people, mainly the poor, women, and children.

The paper concludes that an efficient urban governance system, along with awareness-drive about the hazards of solid waste are the need of the hour.

The chief objectives of the paper are delineated as below:

1. To understand the reasons for high SWG in urban areas.

2. To identify its impact on the health of the people, especially the poor and vulnerable ones.

3. To critically look into redressal mechanisms undertaken by the urban administration to address this global issue.

A brief literature review has clarified certain conceptual issues regarding both SW and impact on public health.  Solid waste is one which includes all types of discarded solid material – iron, electronic, paper, plastic, wooden, and many other types. The source from where these are discarded are households, public institutions like industries, factories, processing and manufacturing units, schools and pubic offices, hospitals or health care institutions, construction works, agriculture, and a large variety of commercial outlets. Experts call the solid waste generated in the urban areas as “Municipal Solid Waste”.

Studies and government reports have also defined even liquid waste like sewage water, industrial outlets, and discarded clothes, solid objects in city’s ponds, lakes, streams, and rainwater drains. A number of studies have been carried out in conceptualizing solid waste management. The study by Enqvist et al (2014) is one of the recent studies which has concentrated its attention upon the importance of citizen networks to deal with the hazards of environment on human health. Basing the study in Bengaluru city, the authors have argued that rapid growth of cities and their expansion caused by globalization, IT and BT hubs, and resultant density of population of all categories due to the backward and forward linkages that they offer, investments in economic enterprises by national and international level entrepreneurs due to privatization and ‘Make in India’ policies, long streams of immigration of workers, service professionals, and small businesses – all have resulted in placing pressure on what ever traditional SWM systems that existed before Bengaluru began to grow as a metropolis. Using qualitative methods and social network analysis, this study has brough out that citizen committees, neighborhood groups etc. have been acting as watchdogs, monitoring wrong disposal (throwing litter away on roads etc). Urban ecosystems are damaged due to this according to this study findings.

Another study by Henry et al (2005) Henry, et al is upon municipal SWM by the urban administration in Kenya. It has highlighted in its findings, the old technology still in use to collect SW by old vehicles, poor infrastructure, and shortage of adequate funding.

The Indian situation as regards the generation, disposal, collection and transportation, disposal and recycling or treatment services/technologies available in the country were studied by Sharholy et al (2007). Limitations and shortcomings in these like poor technology, insufficientresources, accountability etc., have been critically studied here and suggestions have been offered. Awareness among people about the dangers of improper SWM on their health status are critically looked at by Zurbrugg Christian (2002). It draws our attention towards the need for greater public awareness about the disasters of impact of improper SWM on human health. He also quotes a few environmental movements in Manila, Philippines, in this regard. Such an international level of studies have been undertaken by scholars Visvanathan and Tranker (2003) studying municipal solid waste management across nations – China, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand employing looking into a cross section of variables 0 technological, economic, legal and public health. The valuable finding that they have unearthed is the way in which a cross-section of stakeholders has participated in solving the issue/problem –NGOs, government, community, and experts. Agarwal’s study (Agarwal et al 2015) has presented critically the initiatives of the government through such flagship programmes like JNNURM (Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission), TSC (Total Sanitation Campaign) etc. The study by Hasan (2006) has argued that the major factor in making SWM a grand success is creation of public awareness and involving people’s participation in the whole process of solid waste collection, disposal, and management. Only people who suffer the negative impact of solid waste improper disposal alone can bring sustainability and accountability to SWM (Ahmed and Ali 2006). Finally, review of literature has shed light on the fact that SWM figured strongly in both the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals. Both have insisted upon what are called as inclusive policies. Moreover, it was felt that only government programmes and interventions would not work. PPP model (Private Public Partnership) is recommended where the formal and informal sectors join hands to assist the urban governance system to combat health hazards arising from wrongly disposed or managed SW (UN Habitat 2010P).

The conceptual framework of the paper is that it has established an interlink between improper SWM and adverse health outcomes. Community’s empowerment to demand proper maintenance of SWM by the government and promotion of the well-being of the vulnerable people in the context of a fast-expanding metropolis (Bengaluru) is emphasised upon.

The most vulnerable categories of people in the city who suffer from their exposure to improper SW collection and disposal are identified to be:

a. Household and other levels where people are exposed to waste generated by themselves

b. The second category are those who handle SW by collecting or handling it

c. Those who collect SW from the dump sites

d. People living close to these dump sites (incinerators) and

e. Exposure by all to the accumulated hazardous substances.

Urbanization and Solid Waste Generation

Environmental sociologists and economists together with urban planners have argued that SWG and urbanization are inter-related. It is an undisputed factor that all mega cities in the developed and developing world (including India) are in a fast and complex process to urbanize (caused by industrialization, liberalized markets, and privatization).

In India, speedy urbanization was launched after the second Five Year Plan. But it got a fillip in the 70s and 80s when industrialization process had stabilized. Sociologists have considered industrialization as instigating much urban growth and expansion, not only in India (Srinivas 1984) but in the developed world like the USA, where the study of urban sociology took its birth with the establishment of The Chicago School in the 1920s, with urban ecologists and sociologists like Robert E Park theorizing the process with ‘Concentric Ring Theory’; and Burgess calling Urbanism as a way of life.

The post 1990s witnessed greater speed and quantity of urban growth and expansion with the introduction of Structural Adjustment Policies (SAP), and LPG (Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization). With Bengaluru labelled as the Silicon Valley, several other mega cities like Hyderabad, Mumbai, Chennai, Kochi became IT and BT hubs. Gurgaon, Kolkata, Ahmedabad and a few others came to have large-scale commercial centres, markets, and Special Economic Zones (SEZs).

Fall in Agricultural Productivity

In the above context of attempting to unearth the reasons behind increased density of population in cities and towns, the fall in agricultural productivity and its capacity to sustain the livelihoods of the poor and marginal landowning families. The following factors are considered to be the cause of such a downfall of agriculture, whose contribution to the GDP is rated to be around 15 per cent to 25 per cent (GoI, 2015). They are:

i. Irregular rainfall

ii. Crop loss due to poor quality of seeds, manure, etc.

iii. Environmental extremities (excessive rain or failure of rainfall at the right sgtage)

iv. Fluctuation in the prices of agricultural commodities

v. Caste-based oppression driving the Dalits and other oppressed and vulnerable communities out of villages towards, seeking alternative work opportunities

vi. Poverty and loss of livelihoods

All these factors are leading to large scale migration from rural to urban areas.

The 8 Millennium Development Goals that ended in the year 2015 included eradication of urban poverty and improvement of urban areas as one of the key goals. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that began in the year 2015 and scheduled to be ended in 2030, have also placed a lot of emphasis upon environmental hazards, the impact of improper SWM on  the health of urban population and reduction in the generation of SW.

II Situational Analysis

(1) Causes for Increased SWG in Urban Areas

According to urban anthropologists, environmental experts, city planners and civic administrators, the two chief causes of multiplying quantities of SWG are as follows:

a. Urban Lifestyle

Cosmopolitan or metropolitan cities have such an economic and cultural lifestyle that has a lot of scope for SWG. SW is classified into electronic or E-Waste, household SW, SW generated in public institutions – hospitals, markets, transport systems, manufacturing units (like garments), processing firms (food, etc.,), supply of meat, vegetables, fruits, etc. Road side eateries, Dabhas, coffee shops, restaurants, snack shops like Pani Puri, etc., are another major source of SWG. Thirdly, the supply chains for milk, readymade food, and other consumerables, otherproducts needed for daily use also generate a lot of SW.

We have to note that the last-mentioned items are produced/prepared/manufactured in the low-class and slum areas of the cities, by poor households/enterprises. Congestion in terms of space, lack of ventilation, lack of hygiene, improper SW disposal mechanisms – all add to making the SW generated highly decomposed and harmful to health. The gases produced from such undisposed or improperly disposed SW material is very dangerous to the health of the inmates of those houses involved in such economic activities, as well as to the neighbourhood. The situation is converted as more dangerous, messy, and unhygienic when liquid waste (such as sewerage water from gutters, rain water, waste water released from small scale industries/factories, commercial establishments like small hotels, etc.) is also let to get into the SW. One can imagine the total impact on human health.

b. High Density of Population

Needless to emphasize, today, 8 out of 10 landless (even marginal and small landowning) agricultural and casual labourers, hitherto working for wages under the upper and dominant castes in villages, are moving out of their native rural homes towards towns and cities seeking better and sustainable employment opportunities. It is found through assessment studies and government surveys that more than the permanently residing population, the ‘floating’ population is larger in the mega or metropolitan cities. Floating population consists of daily commuters to work in the city in various capacities such as casual labourers, self employed personnel like cab drivers, service professional, factory, and garment workers and so on. Transportation, food and drink and their other needs place a heavy toll on generation of SW.

Secondly, or besides the floating population, we find a large influx of immigrant population flowing into the big cities and metropolitan areas, because of numerous and better paying employment opportunities in them.

(2) Greater the Urbanization, higher is the burden of ill-health

Thus, SWM is intricately connected to urbanization process. One will be shocked to learn that the proportion of world’s population in 1950s, living in the urban areas was about 30 per cent. By 2050 it is expected to rise to include about 60 per cent of world’s population to be living in the urban areas. India (in all its cities and urban conglomerations) is urbanizing at a faster rate like mega cities of the world like Tokyo, New York etc. Going by the rate at which cities are growing and urbanization taking place, there is no doubt that urban centres are acting as the “engines for economic growth and associated waste generation”. But the matter causing concern is that while cities are rapidly growing, with simultaneous SEG, health of their people is undoubtedly at stake. It is entirely due to or caused by poor waste management. Countries like Indian and China are rapidly urbanizing and developing economies, but also characterized by rising volumes of SW generated but the Waste management practices are rather weak.

The single-most factor causing increased SWG in such quantities or proportions that the civic administration finds it hard to efficiently clear or manage it. Therefore, human socio-economic activities and their products are considered as the root cause of the health risks and environmental extremities. Last few decades/years have witnessed how a number of air borne and water borne infectious diseases have posed environmental and health challenges. Some of the diseases are something like ‘having a comeback’. Influenza, Malaria, Tuberculosis, and a number of types of fever – Chikungunya, Dengue, Swine – dysentery, etc. The worst form of impact is on the lungs – bronchial infections, disorders, leading to severe pneumonia, asthma, and other respiratory complications. 

Current economic activities of people in cosmopolitan cities (as discussed above), the products and their usage are recognized by environmentalists and sociologists as causing or leading to severe environmental and climate change, which have in return, drastic impact on human health. 

(3) Solid Waste Generation& Inequality in Impact on Health

It is clear from the above discussion that cities and growing urban population means solid waste generation today. it impacts environment and health of people. Sociologically, it is very important here to note that the impact is not uniform on people. In a socio-culturally stratified and unequal, unjust society that is India, caste influences the intensity or severity of the impact on SWG and its resultant environmental results. In other words, due to poverty and marginalization, oppression, and lack of access to and control over natural and material resources, the poor in urban areas suffer gravely as a result of improper management of solid (and liquid) waste. Among the poor in the slums and other low-lying areas of the cities and towns, we find a large majority of people from SC (Dalit), Muslim, ST, Lower OBC categories, whose poverty and backwardness is the result of a long history of deprivation and exploitation based on caste and religion. To this women and children, disabled, LGBTQ+, sick, old, displaced and migrants have to be added because they are also highly vulnerable.

(4) Solid Waste Management

It is imperative that increased SWG leads to a situation where the civic administration is under much pressure to manage the collection and proper disposal of SW. India has decentralized urban planning and governance system in 1994, as per theConstitution’s 74^th Amendment Act. Administration power, financial grants and entire governance system have been devolved to the elected bodies, viz., Nagara Palikas and City Municipalities in cities and towns. The onus is upon these ULBs (Urban Elected Bodies) to survey and estimate the quantum and extent of SWG; two, to design suitable collection, management and disposal mechanisms in all zones and wards of the cities.

This huge task is turning out to be an exchequer on the budgetary allocation for local governments.

(5) Critical Issues in SW Accumulation and Collection

Health hazards caused to the public, animals, aqua and plants and trees in and surrounding the urban areas are linked to the presence and multiplication of a large number of Open Dumpsites (ODs). One can see garbage in solid form thrown on corners of roads, below lamp polls, parks, public buildings like markets, hospitals, commercial establishments etc. They are thrown around residential settlements, leading extremely dangerous health outcomes. Urban growth, despite the efforts of Urban Development Authorities (like BBMP in Bengaluru, MUDA in Mysuru) to contain the proper disposal, collection, and management of SW, has not been efficient. The reason is the fast growing and expansion of urban metropolis. Cities are already under duress to provide optimum fresh air, clean potable drinking water, ventilation and hygiene, shelter etc., all culminating in failure to provide a clean environment to large mass of urban population. As noted above, the upper classes/elites somehow manage to get the best of all the above services and live in airconditioned residential apartments, lay outs and work in clean environments. It is the poor, very poor and lower middle-class people who suffer more. Beginning with their dilapidated housing structures in slums and congested accommodations. As urban centres/big cities are valued for the educational, employment and other services they provide/offer, they are considered as centres of opportunity to prosper. So, large numbers of people from outside – of all classes, educational qualifications, skills, and aspirants land up in cities adding to the demand for basic services. This has made urban health a costly and challenging one.

This paper is based on revisiting[1] the city’s SWG and SWM practices which have grown extremely complex in its physical, spatial, socio-economic, and other forms of expansions in the last one and a half decades.

A brief review of literature on the impact of solid waste on health in urban areas was undertaken to develop a theoretical framework to highlight the sociological interlinkages that are working in this regard/process. The key concepts used here were:

i. Solid or municipal waste – generation, disposal, and its management;

ii. Impact of solid waste generated but not disposed properly on the health of urban residents and

iii. Measures undertaken by urban administration or governance system.

IV Source of Data

Data was collected using separate sets of structured interview schedules to collect requires information from:

a. Households (mostly women were contacted)

b. Commercial Establishments

c. Representatives of NGOs and Civil Society Organizations and

d. Staff – at the level of SW collection, segregation, disposal/recycling; officials of the BBMP and department of pollution control, public health, GoK

IV Nature of Solid Waste and its Dimensions

Experts have classified solid waste into two basic types: (i) Organic and (ii) Inorganic solid waste. Municipal waste which is in organic form takes three further forms, into what are known as (i) Putrescible, (ii) Fermentable, and (iii) Non-Fermentable.

i. Putrescible Organic Solid Waste

This type of organic solid waste (OSW) is created by waste food stuff which tends to decompose faster.

ii. Fermentable Organic Solid Waste

Fermentable waste is one that decomposes rapidly and affects human health severely because in the process breaks down.

Inorganic Solid Waste

Inorganic Solid Waste consists of metals, plastics, and other non-biodegradable materials.

SW items contain highly hazardous materials like pesticides, medical waste, electrical waste, herbicides, fertilizers, and paints. These have to be disposed in special ways so that they do not impair the health of those coming into contacts with them.

The following categories of people are those who get into contact with both organic and inorganic SW. It has a drastic impact on their health and well-being.

A. Segregation of Solid Waste: those workers who are engaged in segregating the different types of SW are at high risk of being infected by a variety of diseases. This is especially true in the case of medical waste. Ward boys and women attenders, nurses and other medical personnel are constantly exposed to all sorts of medical waste. In many cases, being ignorant of the dangers of close handling of medical waste, the staff treat it or handle it as if it is household waste.

B. Besides, trash collectors from open dump sites, transport workers and a range of other people are similarly exposed to hazardous solid waste material. Not being diligent about wearing protective masks, and gloves, ignorant of risks involved are the usual threats here. in developing countries (even in US and European countries) it is the poor and among them women, who go in for such cheap labour of sorting and collecting SW.

C. Thirdly, people living near open dump sites are constantly exposed to pungent smell, and dogs and pigs feasting on those sites. Rodents, mosquitoes, houseflies, and other pests spread infection. When SW is burnt the smoke gets into the lungs. Those who stay at home like elderly people, very young children and pregnant and lactating mothers are at high risk of getting infected.

D. Inadequate and improper provision of basic services like drinking water, toilets, drainage, good housing with ventilation, roads are the significant sources of contamination and pollution. Cases where the drinking water gets mixed up with sewerage are not uncommon in Bengaluru city’s slums.

The common diseases which are generated and spread among the people generating SW, those who segregate, collect, and dispose or recycle it may be listed as follows;

E. Psychological effects could be in the form of trauma, giddiness, headache, loss of memory, emotional damage, long term morbidity, etc.

F. Bodily injuries like cuts, drowning, bone fractures etc. Hepatitis B is a commonly transmitted infection through skin cuts, bacteria getting into the body through mucous membrane, etc.

G. Gastro-intestinal infections strike on the vulnerable people. examples are typhoid fever, Hepatitis E, Cholera, are examples here.

H. Lastly, we have to seriously take note that exposure to SW results in people affected by chronic diseases.

The need of the hour is good governance or efficient public administration. Urban governance is now in the hands of elected representatives (corporators) who have the administrative and financial autonomy to plan and address the calamity of ill health resulting from SW Generation and poor maintenance.

Secondly, law or legal protection in this regard is absent. Community’s participation is essential in handling this situation and to protect the innocent people from the dangers of sickness due to exposure of SW.

The study has shown how poor health status of people in the cities/urban areas is caused by badly disposed and managed SW services. The error is both on the people (households and public firms) as well as the civic administration. It appears that urbanization and solid waste generation, both will not or cannot stopped from occurring in India’s fastest expanding metropolises, Bengaluru city being one of the multi-complex ones. The volume of waste generated is very high. The process is complex and the contents of the waste are getting more and more deadly and dangerous. What is a matter of grave concern is that the inhaled toxic substances and the waste objects touched by people (children, expectant and nursing mothers, old and sick, specially) shows its effect on their lungs, liver, eyes, and other critical parts of the body, only several years later also. SW impact on health is not immediately seen or experienced; it varies from person to person based on immunity levels, age, gender, working status, environment in which living, occupation and so on.

The study has found that the existing laws and policies in addressing this situation are not properly oriented to address the grave impact on people’s health. One significant finding of the study is that people are not linking their ill health or diseased condition to their exposure to hazardous, accumulated solid waste in their homes, schools, offices, markets, bus and train stations, and a large range of public places. In other words, people are not able to relate their ill health (such as frequent bouts of cold, cough, high fever with chills, dysentery, vomiting, stomach pain, arthritis, and many other forms of indisposition) to their exposure to solid waste.

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