The study of economic development can no longer dispense itself with the analysis of the role played by the traditions and the institutions involved in the process of the economic growth. Pre-industrial societies are characterised by distinctive socio-economic arrangements which are rooted in the past and bear the stamp of pre-technology cultures. They may account not only for the admittedly low rate of development of any underdeveloped country or any community but also for the low productivity of most of the capital investments. Indeed, traditional cultural patterns may be so strong and may have such vitality that they actually have the power to arrest and ultimately exhaust the momentum of economic growth. Thus, the present study focuses on the Trade and Commerce in Early India as depicted in the Jaina Text Kuvalaymalakaha.

1. To study the different patterns of trade and commerce during the ancient period as per the Jaina text.

2. To analyze the various trade routes prevalent during the ancient period as reflected in the Kuvalaymalakaha.

3. To examine the literature present on the trade and commerce in ancient India as reflected in the Jaina text.

John Stuart-Mill (1848)in his book“Principles of Political Economy”,originally wrote the Principles of Political Economy, with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy very quickly, having studied economics under the rigorous tutelage of his father, James, since his youth.

Alfred Marshall (1890)  in his book “Principles of Economics”, analyze that Political Economy or Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisites of wellbeing.

The Economic life of Nothern India c. A.D. 700-1200, is written by LallanjiGopal (1965),studied that the vogue for economic history has increased in the post-Independence decades. But economic history is an exceedingly difficult discipline. The historian often gets lost in producing an inventory of static facts or else is committed to confirm a conceptual and interpretational framework copied from western history.

Prācīna Jaina SāhityamemnĀrthikaJīvana: EkaAdhyayana is written by Kamal Jain (1988).In this work the author has discussed about the importance of money in the means of production and earning with reference to – land, labour, capital and management. And he also discussed about the exchange, trade, transport and coins andanalysed the distribution factor of production i.e. land, labour, dividends, rent, remuneration, interest and profit etc.It provides an in – depth view of the economic life as reflected in the Jaina literature. However, the book is lacking in throwing light on the social life of the then India.

Smith Adam (2005)in his book “Wealth of Nation”, observed that the expense of defending the society, and that of supporting the dignity of the chief magistrate, are both laid out for the general benefit of the whole society. It is reasonable, therefore, that they should be defrayed by the general contribution of the whole society; all the different members contributing, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities.

KrishanLal Grover and Ritu Singh (2022)in his work “Trade and Commerce in Ancient India”, studied that India has long been a trading nation, with precious goods such as spices, scents, valuable stones, jewellery, silks, muslins, and medicinal drugs etc. to offer the world since the Harppan era. The dockyard discovered in Lothal, Gujarat, gives unusually strong evidence of maritime commerce at the time. The Vedic economy valued both internal and exterior trade equally. Manufacturing activity was brisk throughout the Mauryan rule. The Mauryans had enacted rules and regulations on trade movement. The Kushanas made significant progress in the Indian trade and developed trading links with China, Rome, Sindhu, Sauvira, Kapisa, Gandharas, Puskalavati, Madhura, and Varansi. HeGuptas not only expanded their eastern trade but also opened up western sea-borne trade, resulting in unparalleled economic success. The Palas and Cholas established connections throughout southern India.Trade enhanced cultural interaction, resulting in the spread of ideas and cultural practices, notably in the fields of language, religion, and art.

Trade and Commerce in Ancient India

In the earlier days of human activities a man produced what he actually required for his consumption, but in course of time, he produced more than what he actually needed. This led to 'exchange' of commodities and services between man and man. Formerly the exchange was in the form of 'barter'-wherein goods were exchanged for goods and services.¹³

Trade, which was the natural corollary of surplus production by an individual, grew more and more with large-scale production in fields and factories.¹⁴

Classification

Trade can be broadly classified under the following heads:-

1. Inland trade

2. Foreign trade

Inland Trade

Inland trade, as its name denotes, is carried on within the geographical limits of a country. It may be local, in which case, the surplus produce of a village or a town is sold in the village or town itself. It may be zonal or inter-state when articles produced in one zone or State are traded with those of other zones or States.¹⁵

Foreign Trade

When goods of one country are traded with those of other countries, such trade is termed foreign trade or external trade. In modern times we find large-scale foreign trade in almost every country.¹⁶

Foreign trade is 'Export trade, when the surplus goods of a country are sent to other countries for sale, and 'Import trade', when commodities are purchased and brought from a foreign market to the home country.¹⁷

Trade in Ancient India

We find ample evidences of large-scaleboth trade inland and foreign trade in ancient India as depicted in Jaina canonical literature. The surplus agricultural, industrial and other products were marketed not only locally and internally but also in distant foreign lands. Trade centres developed and merchants as a class grew up.

The Jaina texts give a vivid account of the trading activities of the merchants of those times. Local trade was carried on in one regular way. Trade within the State as well as inter-state trade exist ed. Commodities brought from the village of the same State were called 'Sadesgāmāhaḍaṁ' and those brought from the villages of other States were known as 'Paradesagāmāhaḍaṁ'. ¹⁸  

Trade in ancient India was mostly carried on by the merchants as sole traders. The reference, “paṁca vaṇiyāsambhāgasamāittā vavaharaṁti”,¹⁹ tells us about five merchants carrying on trade by putting an equal share (samabhāga). This means that partnership as a form of business organisation was known to people. The traders were generally united under trade guilds known as 'seṇi' (sreṇis) headed by seṭṭhis (sreṣṭhis). The Jaina canonical texts refer to guilds of goldsmiths²⁰, painters, etc.

Trade Commodities

From the description given in Jaina texts it seems that trading was carried out in various types of commodities. This has been graphically described in the words, "Gaṇimaṁjāiphalafofalāi, dharimaṁ tukuṁkumaguḍāi, mejjaṁ copaḍa loṇāi, rayaṇa-vatthāiṁ paricchejjaṁ".²¹Accordingly articles for trade were divided into the following categories²²:-

Gaṇima: The articles which could be counted e.g. betel nuts (pagaphala), coconut, scented nut (jaiphala), etc.

Dharima: Those which could be weighed e.g. sugar (sakkara) or gada, pepper (pippali), saffron (kumkum) etc.

Meya or Mejja: Those which could be measured e.g. rice, oil, ghee (ghrata), salt (lona), etc.

Pariccheija: Those whose value could be ascertained by scrutiny e.g. jewels, cloths, etc.

Internal Trade Routes

The important cities and towns of ancient India were connected either by land routes (roads) or by waterways which were used for internal trade.

Land Routes

Lord Mahavira and many of his disciples travelled to different cities like Rājagṛha, Campā, Vaisali, Sravasti, Varanasi, etc. which were connected by land routes at that time. These towns of Eastern India had trade relations with West India up to Sind and Kashmir and as such these towns must have been well-connected with roads. The movement of Lord Mahavira from Rajagṛha and suburb of Nalanda to different places like Kundagrāma, Alabhiya, Sravasti, Vaisali, Mithila,Campa, etc^.23 shows that some sort of land routes did exist in certain parts of the country.²⁴

Water Routes

Besides land routes, the rivers also provided useful transport facilities for internal trade. The five important navigable rivers mentioned are the Ganges, Yamuna, Sarju, Kosika and Mahi.²⁵Other rivers like Sindhu, Iravati, Venna²⁶, etc. have also been mentioned in the text which served as means of communication.

Boats of different sizes and shapes were used in the river transport These were commonly termed 'nāva' or 'pota'.²⁷ They have also been mentioned as agatthiya,antarandakagoliya, koncaviraga²⁸, etc. Boat sailing along the currents of the water have been described as 'anusrotogamini' while those sailing against the currents as 'pratilomagāminis'²⁹a Boats going across the river straight to the other bank were known as ‘Tiriccha’.³⁰

Coastal Trading

The canonical texts provide ample references of coastal trading in those days. The UttaradhyayanaSutram mentions about a merchant named Palita (Paliya) of Campa, also a great scholar of religion and philosophy carrying on coastal trading by ships.³¹ He went to the town of Pihuṇḍa/Pithunda (near Kalingapattam³²) for trade and was married there to a Vaisya girl. ³³

This reference leads us to believe that the traders in ancient India carried on coastal trade. They went out into the sea with boats and sailing ships laden with trade cargo and sold them at huge profits. There was a kind of boat sailing from one shore to another which was called 'tiryak-saṁtariṇi.³⁴

Trade and Commerce in Kuvalayamalakaha

The original book 'Kuvalayamalakaha'authored byUdyotansuri in Prakrit language gives a detailed view of the cultural life of India of the seventh-eighth century CE. It throws light upon the trade relations of India with the foreign countries. Traders travelled far and wide traversing the water and land routes. The text further mentions that the prosperity of the society was based on the progress of commerce and trade. All kinds of means, good and bad, were prevalent for earning money. It provided double benefits in cross-country migration, sea transfer and partner trade. In local trade, market streets and markets were the main centers of buying and selling. Vijayapuri in the south, Varanasi in the north and Soparak and Pratisthan in the west were the backbone of domestic and foreign trade.³⁵

In ancient India, commerce occupied a prominent place among the means of earning money. In the society of that time, there was a lot of trade, both local and foreign. Various and detailed information related to commerce and trade is available in Kuvalayamalakaha, which makes the nature of the economic life of that time clear.³⁶

Business Trip Preparation

In Kuvalayamalakaha, there is a detailed description of the visit by Dhandev, the merchant son of Takshashila, to SoparakMandi in Dakshinapath (Article 128).³⁷Mayaditya and Sthanu had also prepared for PratisthanMandi in Dakshinapath. From these incidents, the following information is obtained regarding preparation for a business trip³⁸-

1. To fulfill the efforts of religion and work, it is necessary for every person to earn money.

2. The happiness of earning money through one's own muscle power is special, even if there is immense wealth in the house.

3. It was considered best to do charity and charitable work with the money earned through one’s own muscle power.

4. It was necessary to take father’s permission while earning money.

5. Travelling to Dakshinapath was difficult. Therefore, the businessman's father protects his son from possible difficulties. He informed them about efficient ways to avoid them and gave them permission to travel.

6. Before starting the journey, the favourite deities were worshipped.

7. Necessary items were taken along.

8. Advice was taken by sharing information with other traders.

9. Workers were collected.

10. The merchant sons used to reach their destination by crossing many rivers, mountains and horse-drawn vehicles. The characters of Kuvalayamala, Mayaditya and Sthanu, pass through there disguised in fear of thieves.³⁹

Tradition of Welcome Traders to the Markets

From the description of Kuvalayamalakaha, it is known that there was a group (category) of local traders of SoparakMandi, in which it was the custom that any foreign trader or local trader who went to any country for business, whatever goods he sold or bought there. He should come and narrate in this group the details of whatever profit and loss he has incurred. If he accepts the welcome of fragrance, tambol, flowers etc. from the group, then later he should go back to his country. This custom hascontinued from the time of the ancestors of the traders till now. ⁴⁰

Purpose of the Sea Voyage

Four incidents of sea voyages are described in Kuvalayamalakaha. The stories ofSarthvahaputraDhandev, three lost travelers,Sagardutt and his two merchant sons present special material on the subject of sea travel. In all these cases the purpose of the sea voyage is to earn immense wealth. Somdev, after hearing about Soparak earning immense wealth through Ratnadweep's visit to the business community, gets ready to travel there himself, so that he too can earn more money. (Article 130)⁴¹ The merchant of Prataliputra, despite being as rich as Kuber, goes on a journey to Ratnadweep to earn money.⁴² "Sagardutt considers the business of sea voyage appropriate to earn seven crore rupees with his own hands.⁴³Two sons of the merchant joined the seafaring merchants out of greed for wages.  Considering the purpose of earning money in sea voyages, it seems that Indian traders had become familiar with the splendor of the Arab market in the seventh-eighth century CE. The competition had thus awakened in their minds the desire to accumulate wealth and luxuries. Due to this, Indian shipping had developed significantly.         

Different Flag

There is a description of an incident in Kuvalayamalakaha in which three Sarthavaha ships get wrecked on the same island after wandering separately. While going from Pataliputra to Ratnadweep, the ship of a merchant named Dhan breaks down on the way. He somehow manages to reach Kudangdweep with the help of a plank. This island was full of many predatory animals and the fruits here were bitter and it was uninhabited by humans. One day while wandering here, Dhandev sees another man. On enquiry, it came to light that the merchant had come here because his ship got wrecked while going to Swarnadweep. Now both of them started wandering here.⁴⁴

Those two travellers were searching for a tree whose fruits were sweet, but they were disappointed. They found Kadambari trees there, which had no fruits. After some time, those trees started bearing fruits, which he started protecting with great care.⁴⁵

Land Route

Ancient Indian land routes developed significantly in the eighth century.⁴⁶The prosperity of the inland trade shows that various trade centers of the country were connected to each other through dharma. Uttarapath and Dakshinapath were the main routes. Roads to other cities also ran through these, which were used for business and other travel. Keeping in mind the entire story of Kuvalayamalakaha, many major landmarks are revealed from the sequence of events. Some of them are as follows-⁴⁷

1. From Ayodhya to Vijayapuri (Andhra Pradesh) viaKoshambi, Vindhya Atvi, Narmada River, Sahyaparvat (Kerala), Chinta-Mani Palli (Karnatka) and Kochi (Kerala).

2. From Kanchi (RagadaSannivesh) Kaushambi (Chandsom's story, Article 88-89).⁴⁸

3. Narmada River in the south direction from Vindhyatvi (Article 205, 206).⁴⁹

4. From Chintamanipati (Tamil Nadu) to Bharakchha (Gujarat) and from there to Ayodhya (Article 334).⁵⁰

5. Champa (Chattisgarh) to Shravasti (Uttar Pradesh) (Article 185).⁵¹

7. Saralpur (West Bengal) to Hastinapur (Article 395-397).⁵²

Waterways

In the context of description of sea voyage in Kuvalayamalakaha, information about the following waterways is found-⁵³

1. Route from Sopparak to China, (Article 130).⁵⁴

2. The route from Sopparak to Mahilarajya (Tibet).

3. Ratnadweep/Lankapuri (Sri Lanka) to Tardweep.

4. Kaushal (Ayodhya) to Lankapuri (Sri Lanka) (Article 144).⁵⁵

5. Kudangdweep on the way from Pataliputra to Ratnadweep (Article 166).⁵⁶

6. Jayashreenagari to Yavandweep (Greek) (Article 186).⁵⁷

7. The route from Yavandweep to Chandradweep which takes five days and nights (Article 189).⁵⁸

8. Sopparak to Babbarkul (Article 128-129).⁵⁹

9. Sopparak to Swarnadweep (Sumatra).⁶⁰

It is quite natural that the abundant supply of various products led to large-scale trading in ancient India. Merchants as a class grew up and started occupying a prominent place in the society. The Jaina text presents a vivid account of the trading activities of the merchants of that time. The inland trade was carried on both land and water routes. The traders were generally united under trade guilds which were known as sepis (Srepis) headed by 'setthis' (Sresthis). The formation of guilds in those days shows that the merchants possessed the idea of modern Chambers of Commerce to safeguard and promote their interests.

The texts reveal that the journey for trade in ancient India was full of hardships and difficulties. Good roads did not exist everywhere. Traders at times had to pass through thick forests and isolated regions which were quite unsafe. Hence the traders generally moved in groups which were known as 'Sattha' or 'Sartha' (caravan of merchants). The leader of the group was known as 'Satthavaha' or 'Sarthavaha' (caravan leader). He occupied a dominant position in the trading group and was a man of great initiative, foresight, courage and intelligence. He took all the possible care to make the journey safe and provide comfort to the accompanying traders. Dhanna (Dhanya) Sarthavaha of Campa is mentioned as one of them who possessed great skill in this work. He knew how to please the king and receive tax concessions.

We find a good account of foreign trade in the Jaina texts which show that various types of articles were exported to and imported from different countries. It is significant to learn that the texts mention about the imposition of import duties but not of export duties, which means that ancient India too, was interested in export promotion.

The mention of different trade centres as grama (villages), akara (mining towns), nagara (towns), nigama (municipal corporations), dropakha (nodal towns), Pattana (ports), etc. shows a high level of development in trade-both internal and foreign. The account of big towns and cities like Rajagtha, Campa, Pataliputra, Mithila, Vaisali, Varanasi, Mathur, Strapäraka, Bbrgukaccha, Takpatila, etc. highlight the prosperity of the country and the progress achieved in the field of trade and commerce in ancient India.

1. KrishanLal Grover and Ritu Singh. “Trade and Commerce in Ancient India”, International Journal of Law Management & Humanities, Vol. 5(3), (2022), pp. 21-86.

2. Kamal Jain, Prācina Jaina SāhityamemnĀrthikaJivana: Eka Adhyayana, Parshav Nath Vidyasharam Shodh Sansthan, Varanasi, (1988), p. 8.

3.Ibid.,&" Manushyanam Vrittirartha Tasya Prithivyalaabhapalanopayah ShastramarnashastraIti", Kautilya Arthashastra,15/1/p.180.

4. Smith Adam, Wealth of Nations, Electronic Classics Series Publication,3/p.1.

5. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy,1/p.1.

6. Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, Macmillan, Reprinted by Prometheus Books,1/p.2.

7. Nishiyachurni, (AtthashpattiVavaharo), SanmatiGyanPeeth, Agra, Part 4/Gatha 63, 97.

8. Question Grammar, Jain ShastrodharSamiti, Rajkot,5/4; Kamal Jain, op.cit.,p. 9.

9. Sanghadasagani, Brihatkalpabhashya, Shri Jain Atma Nanda Sabha, BhavNangar, Part 1/p. 388,

10. Nandisutra, AcharyaShriAtma Ram JainParkashanSamitia, Ludhiana,“Nimitte, atthasaththe a.” Gatha 74.

11. Dashvaikalikchurni, Jain Shastra Mala Office, Lahora, p.102.

12. Bharatayaarthashastram cha Bharatam cha sasangraham |

Adhyayairativistairnaihn Sphootikritya JagauGuruh ||

Adipuran, 16/p.119; Kamal Jain, op.cit.,p. 9.

13. Dinendra Chandra Jain,Economic Life in Ancient India as depicted in Jain Canonical Literature, Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology and Ahimsa, Vaishali (Bihar), 1980. p. 60.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.,p. 61.

17. Ibid.

18. NisithaSutram, Vol. III, V. (1484), p. 209;Dinendra Chandra Jain, op.cit., p. 61.

19. Dinendra Chandra Jain, op.cit.,p. 62.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.,p. 66.

22. Ibid.,pp. 66-67.

23. Ibid.,p. 69.

24. Ibid.

25. Nisitha Sutram, Vol. III, V. (4210), p. 364.

26. Ibid.,Vol. III, V, (4470). P. 425.

27. Bhagavati Sutram, Vol. II, Chap. VI, S. 2, p. 25.

28. BrhatKalpa Sutram, Vol. III, V. (2397), p. 681.

29. Nisitha Sutram, Vol. I, V. (183), p. 69.

30. Dinendra Chandra Jain, op.cit.,p. 71.

31. Uttaradhyayana Sutram, Vol. II, Chap. XXI, V. 1, p. 925.

32. Dinendra Chandra Jain, op.cit.,p. 71.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid.

35. Prem Suman Jain, Kuvalayamalakaha of Udyotansuri, Vol. I, (Tran. in Hindi), Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur. (2016). Preface, p. 23.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid.,pp. 241-43.

38. Ibid.

39. Ibid.,p. 24.

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.,pp. 245-47.

42. Ibid.,p. 25.

43. Ibid.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.,p. 26.

46. Ibid., p. 27

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.,pp. 169-73.

49. Ibid.,pp. 439-47.

50. Prem Suman Jain, Kuvalayamalakaha of Udyotansuri, Vol. II, (Tran. in Hindi), Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur. (2016), p. 797. 

51. PremSuman Jain, Vol. I. op.cit.,pp. 381-83.

52. PremSuman Jain, Vol. II, op.cit.,pp. 949-59.

53. PremSuman Jain, Vol. I. op.cit.,p. 26.

54. Ibid.,pp. 244-47.

55. Ibid.,pp. 272-73.

56. Ibid.,pp. 324-29.

57. Ibid.,pp. 382-85.

58. Ibid.,pp. 390-93.

59. Ibid.,pp. 240-45.

60. Lallanji Gopal, The Economic Life of Northern India c. A.D. 700-1200, MotilalBanarsidass, Varanasi, (1965), p. 137.