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This study focus is on the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labor in Bihar, examining various factors like wage rates, policies, market dynamics, social structures, and environmental impacts. The research also delves into the challenges faced by agricultural laborers, such as low wages, poor working conditions, limited access to social security, healthcare, seasonal unemployment, and complex tenancy issues.

1. To assess the socio-economic status of agricultural laborers in Bihar and how it compares to national standards.
2. To analyze the impact of agricultural policies and market dynamics on the livelihoods of agricultural laborers.
3. To evaluate the role of social structures and environmental factors in shaping the agricultural labor market in Bihar.
4. To propose policy recommendations that could improve the working conditions and economic stability of agricultural laborers in Bihar.

A literature review is a comprehensive survey of existing scholarly work related to socio economic condition of agriculture of labour in Bihar. This process involves the identification, evaluation, and synthesis of relevant studies and articles to establish a clear understanding of the current knowledge base. By conducting a literature review, researchers can identify gaps in the existing literature, recognize patterns and trends, and gain insights into various methodological approaches used in previous studies. This foundational step not only informs the research methodology but also helps in contextualizing the new research within the broader academic discourse. It ensures that the research contributes meaningfully to the existing body of knowledge, avoiding duplication of efforts and fostering deeper insights into the subject matter. To understand the Socio Economic condition of Bihar agriculture survey, I have done latest 08 review of literature about agriculture labour in Bihar from different reputed research paper.

Alam, A. (2020). The research paper by Dr. Ashfaque Alam, titled "Upliftment of Agriculture Labour through Labour Laws," published examines the plight of agricultural laborers in India. It highlights their marginalization within the rural social hierarchy and their struggles with unsecured, underprivileged lives marked by uncertainties and seasonal income. The paper discusses the inefficacy of government efforts to improve their socio-economic conditions, largely due to short-term solutions and a lack of integration with broader economic policies. It emphasizes the critical role of agriculture in the Indian economy and the substantial impact of monsoon variability on agricultural productivity. The paper also explores traditional farming methods, employment issues, income disparities, and the legal and governmental initiatives aimed at improving the conditions of agricultural laborers.

Sinha, J. K., & Sinha, A. K. (2020).  The research paper "Sustainable Agricultural Development under Influence of Technology: A Case Study of Bihar" published in the Indian Journal of Applied Business and Economic Research, explores the impact of technology on agricultural development in Bihar, India. The study uses a Cobb-Douglas production function to analyze data from 1990 to 2016, focusing on the contributions of various agricultural technologies to economic growth in agriculture. It emphasizes the positive effects of technological advancements in agriculture, such as mechanization and improved farming practices, on the economic development of Bihar. The paper underscores the importance of strategic investment in agricultural technologies to sustain growth and improve livelihoods in agrarian communities.

Kumar, A., & Kumar, M. (2020, June 13). "Economic & Political Weekly" titled "Marginalised Migrants and Bihar as an Area of Origin" delves into the challenges faced by migrants from Bihar during the COVID-19 pandemic. It examines the structural issues in Bihar's economy, including unemployment and landlessness, that lead to high migration rates. The authors suggest that the state needs to focus on creating employment opportunities, both in farming and non-farm sectors, to mitigate the challenges faced by returning migrants and to address the broader economic crisis.

Kumar, P. (2020). The research paper "Problems of Labour Migration from Bihar" published in the International Education & Research Journal provides an insightful analysis of the labor migration patterns in Bihar, India. The study emphasizes the impact of socio-economic factors, including poverty and underdevelopment, on the migration trends. It highlights the significant role of remittances in the livelihood of families, the influence of caste and land ownership on migration decisions, and the evolving destinations for migrants from Bihar. The paper also considers the educational and health impacts on families left behind, indicating a complex interplay between economic needs and social dynamics in the region.

Datta, A. (2020). The paper "Circular Migration and Precarity: Perspectives from Rural Bihar" published in the Indian Journal of Labour Economics, provides a comprehensive analysis of circular migration patterns and the precarity faced by migrants from rural Bihar, India. Focusing on the extensive challenges that these migrants encounter, including low income, precarious living and working conditions, and lack of social security, the paper underscores the reproduction of social and economic hierarchies from source to destination regions. It highlights that spatial mobility does not necessarily translate into social mobility for these migrants.

Srivastava, S. K., Singh, J., Kumar, N. R., Singh, N. P., & Ahmad, N. (2020). The paper "Changing Agricultural Labour Market and Its Effects on Farm Economy in India," authored examines the dynamics of India's agricultural labor market and its impact on the farm economy. Published in the Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics in 2020, it discusses the shift from agricultural labor towards non-farm sectors, highlighting the decline in labor use in crop cultivation and the rising cost of labor despite this decline. The study also explores the effects of COVID-19 on labor supply and the subsequent implications for the farm economy in different states.

Datt, G., Dutta, S., & Mishra, S. K. (2021).  The research paper "The COVID-19 Pandemic and Migrant Workers from Rural Bihar" published in the Centre for Development Economics and Sustainability's Working Paper Series in 2021, provides an in-depth analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the livelihoods of migrant workers from rural Bihar. The study, based on extensive phone interviews with over 1600 households, reveals the significant disruption to the lives and income of migrant workers and their families. The paper highlights large-scale reverse migration, loss of employment, and drastic reductions in remittances, painting a comprehensive picture of the pandemic's economic fallout on this vulnerable group.

Sinha, J. K. (2022). The paper "Public Expenditure for Agricultural Development & the Economic Growth of Bihar (1981- 2019)" analyzes the relationship between public spending in agriculture and economic growth in Bihar, India. Employing time-series analysis and various econometric techniques, it concludes that government spending in agriculture has an insignificant effect on the per capita real GDP of Bihar. This finding is counterintuitive to the expected positive impact of agricultural investment on economic growth, suggesting a need for more effective and productive allocation of resources in the sector.

This research employs a predominantly secondary data analysis approach to investigate the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labor in Bihar. The primary data sources include the Bihar Economics Survey, Indian Economic Survey, and relevant newspaper articles. Furthermore, data is drawn from authoritative bodies such as the Central Statistical Organisation, Government of India, and the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Bihar. A significant dataset is derived from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (MoSPI) conducted in 2021. These diverse sources facilitate a comprehensive examination of the socio-economic challenges faced by agricultural laborers in Bihar. To enhance the interpretability of the data, Microsoft Excel is utilized for data visualization, enabling clear and concise representation of key trends and patterns.

Methodological Limitation

Despite the comprehensive nature of the data collected, it is essential to acknowledge certain methodological limitations inherent in this research. The reliance on secondary data introduces the possibility of data incompleteness or inconsistency across sources. Additionally, the research is constrained by the available data parameters, limiting the depth of analysis in certain aspects. The use of cross-sectional data may also restrict the ability to establish causation or understand the dynamics of change over time. Moreover, the scope of the research does not delve into qualitative aspects, such as the personal experiences of agricultural laborers, which could provide valuable insights into the socio-economic challenges faced. These limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings and extrapolating them to broader contexts

Economic Growth in Bihar: A Five-Year Perspective

Over the past five years, from 2017-18 to 2021-22, Bihar's economy has demonstrated significant growth, as indicated by the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) and Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) metrics, both at current and constant prices. The GSDP of Bihar, measured at constant (2011-12) prices, grew at an annual rate of 4.6 percent during this period. However, this growth was not consistent, largely due to the disruptive impact of the Covid-19 pandemic, particularly during its second wave in 2020-21, which led to a contraction of 3.2 percent in the GSDP. The economic recovery began to take shape in the latter half of 2021-22. Excluding the pandemic period, Bihar's economy has shown a commendable performance, continuing a positive trend that began over a decade ago. This steady growth has enabled Bihar to progressively close the gap with the national average in terms of Per Capita Income. When compared with other Empowered Action Group (EAG) states, Bihar, along with Rajasthan, recorded the highest GSDP growth rate at 11.0 percent in 2021-22 at constant (2011-12) prices, while Uttar Pradesh exhibited the lowest growth rate among the EAG states. The overall growth patterns over this five-year span reflect these trends, underscoring Bihar's evolving economic landscape.

The table 01 presents the Real GDP and GSDP growth rates for the Empowered Action Group (EAG) states of India, including Bihar, from the fiscal year 2017-18 to 2021-22, with a calculated Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) for the same period. Bihar has shown a robust growth trajectory with the highest CAGR of 4.6%, peaking at a growth rate of 11% in 2021-22 after a significant dip to -3.2% in the pandemic year of 2020-21. Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand also experienced fluctuations in their annual growth rates, with Jharkhand having the lowest CAGR of 1.9%. Madhya Pradesh rebounded to a 10.1% growth rate in 2021-22 after a contraction in 2020-21, reflecting a 5% CAGR over the five years. Odisha and Rajasthan displayed recovery post-pandemic with double-digit growth rates in 2021-22, and their CAGR stood at 2.9% and 3.4% respectively. Uttar Pradesh showed the lowest growth rate in 2021-22 at 4.2%, with an overall CAGR of 1%. Uttarakhand's growth rate recovered to 6.1% in 2021-22, marking a CAGR of 3.1%. The table also compares these states with the national average, where India's economy grew by 8.7% in 2021-22 after a substantial anomaly listed as "66" for 2020-21, likely a typographical error, with a CAGR of 2% from 2017-18 to 2021-22. The source of this data is the Central Statistical Organisation, Government of India.

Table 02 provides the sectoral growth rates of the EAG states of India at constant (2011-12) prices, broken down into primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors from 2019-20 to 2021-22. Bihar's primary sector showed steady growth, culminating in a 9.6% increase in 2021-22, while the secondary sector recovered from a 4.9% decline in 2020-21 to a 3.8% growth in 2021-22. The tertiary sector in Bihar saw a remarkable surge of 133% in 2021-22 after a significant contraction in the previous year. Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh also exhibited recovery across all sectors in 2021-22, with Madhya Pradesh achieving double-digit growth in both primary and secondary sectors. Odisha and Rajasthan saw notable improvements in their secondary sectors, with Rajasthan achieving the highest growth of 16.3%. Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand displayed moderate recovery in 2021-22 across all sectors. Chhattisgarh's primary sector data for 2021-22 is not available, but showed a sharp decline in the previous year. Overall, India experienced growth in the primary and tertiary sectors in 2021-22, recovering from the previous year's downturns. The data includes provisional estimates for 2020-21 and quick estimates for 2021-22, sourced from the Central Statistical Organisation, Government of India.

Table 3.2 depicts the percentage share of the agriculture sector in the Gross State Value Added (GSVA) of Bihar from 2017-18 to 2021-22. There has been a fluctuating trend in the share of crops, starting at 12.5% in 2017-18, declining to 9.7% by 2019-20, and then increasing to 11.1% by 2021-22. Livestock's share showed a similar initial decline but increased to 6.9% in 2020-21 before slightly dropping to 6.6% in 2021-22. The sectors of forestry and logging, and fishing and aquaculture, have remained relatively stable, contributing around 1.6-1.8% each to the GSVA over the years. Overall, the combined share of agriculture, forestry, and fishing saw a dip from 21.5% in 2017-18 to 18.8% in 2019-20, followed by a rebound to 21.3% in 2020-21, and a slight decrease to 21.1% in 2021-22. The data, provided by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Bihar (GoB), shows a resilience in the agricultural sector despite fluctuations in individual sub-sectors.

Factors Influencing Agricultural Labor : Bihar's agricultural sector

Economic factors play a pivotal role in the agricultural labor market. Wage rates are a fundamental aspect, as they directly affect the income and standard of living of laborers. Competitive wage rates can attract a more skilled workforce, while low wages may lead to labor shortages or force laborers to seek alternative employment, possibly in different regions or industries. Agricultural policies, including subsidies, credit facilities, and support prices, can influence the profitability of farming, which in turn affects the demand for labor. Market dynamics, such as the demand for various crops, price fluctuations, and access to markets, also have a significant impact on the viability of farming and the employment it can sustain.

Social factors significantly shape the agricultural labor force in Bihar. The caste system, deeply ingrained in Indian society, often dictates the type of work individuals are expected to do and their status in the job hierarchy. This social stratification can affect labor opportunities and wages for different groups. Gender roles also influence who participates in agricultural labor, with women typically receiving lower wages than men for the same work. Education levels amongst agricultural laborers tend to be lower, limiting their opportunities for upward mobility and making them more susceptible to exploitation.

Environmental factors have become increasingly important in recent years. The size and quality of landholdings in Bihar affect the productivity and the type of agriculture that can be practiced, which in turn influences labor demand. Smaller, fragmented landholdings may not support mechanization, thereby requiring more manual labor. Climate change poses a significant threat to agricultural stability, impacting weather patterns, water availability, and crop yields. This can lead to increased vulnerability for agricultural laborers, who may face irregular employment and income due to crop failures or the changing seasons.

By examining these factors, this section aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the complex web of influences that govern the lives and work of agricultural laborers in Bihar, setting the stage for discussions on policy interventions and development strategies.

Challenges faced by agricultural laborers in Bihar

Low Wages and Poor Working Conditions : Agricultural laborers in Bihar often receive wages that are lower than those in other sectors. According to the Labour Bureau, the average daily wage rates for agricultural laborers in Bihar are significantly lower than the national average. For example, in 2021, the daily wage for unskilled labor in agriculture in Bihar was approximately INR 277 compared to the national average of around INR 321. Coupled with the low wages are the poor working conditions, characterized by long hours, lack of proper sanitation facilities, and exposure to harmful pesticides without adequate protective gear. These factors not only contribute to the financial precarity of agricultural workers but also to various health issues.

Limited Access to Social Security Benefits and Healthcare : Access to social security and healthcare is severely limited for agricultural laborers in Bihar. A vast majority of the agricultural labor force is employed informally, which means they often do not benefit from labor laws that mandate social security. According to a study by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), only a small fraction of the total agricultural workers are covered under any health insurance scheme. This lack of coverage leaves them vulnerable to health emergencies, which can lead to catastrophic out-of-pocket expenditures, further entrenching them in poverty.

Seasonal Unemployment and Underemployment : The seasonal nature of agricultural work in Bihar results in periods of unemployment and underemployment. The Rangarajan Committee report on poverty suggests that the incidence of casual laborers who primarily rely on agricultural labor is high in Bihar, with seasonal unemployment rates peaking between planting and harvesting seasons. Underemployment is also a persistent issue, with many laborers not finding enough work to fill their time, resulting in inadequate income. This is reflected in the state's labor force participation rate, which, according to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2019-20, is lower than the national average.

Landlessness and Complex Tenancy Issues : Landlessness is a significant challenge, with the NSSO stating that a substantial portion of rural households in Bihar do not own any land. Those who do own land often have very small and fragmented holdings, insufficient for a sustainable livelihood. Tenancy laws in Bihar, which are meant to protect tenant farmers, often go unenforced, leading to exploitation by landowners. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that land records are frequently outdated or incorrect, making it difficult for tenants to claim their rights or access credit and government assistance. This precarious land tenure system hinders agricultural productivity and traps laborers in a cycle of poverty and uncertainty.

Table 04 : Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) by State (2020-21)

Source: Periodic Labour Force Survey (MoSPI), 2021

The table 04 shows the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (2020-21) underscores the challenges faced by agricultural laborers in Bihar, which have been previously discussed. Bihar's LFPR is significantly lower than the national average, particularly among women. In rural areas, the male LFPR is 72.3% in Bihar, compared to 81.4% nationally, while the female rate in Bihar is drastically lower at 11.3%, versus 39.2% nationally. Urban areas show a similar trend with male LFPR at 71.4% in Bihar and 80.9% nationally; female LFPR is at a mere 6.9% in Bihar compared to 25.8% nationally. Overall, the LFPR in Bihar stands at 42.2%, much lower than the national average of 58.4%. These figures reflect the economic and social factors previously mentioned: low wages, poor working conditions, and limited access to social security and healthcare. The low female participation rate also ties back to the social factors, such as the influence of the caste system, gender roles, and education levels on labor participation. Additionally, the seasonal nature of agricultural work and the prevalence of landlessness and tenancy issues contribute to the underemployment, as evidenced by the lower LFPRs. This data not only highlights the disparity between Bihar and the rest of India but also the urgency of addressing these systemic challenges within the state.

Table 05 : Unemployment Rate by States (2020-21)

Source : Periodic Labour Force Survey (MoSPI), 2021Top of Form

In urban areas, the disparity widens, with Bihar having a male unemployment rate of 9.5% compared to India's 6.4%, and a significantly higher female unemployment rate at 17.4% against the national rate of 9.1%. Overall, Bihar's unemployment rate stands at 5.1%, which is slightly higher than the national average of 4.6%. These statistics highlight the economic challenges mentioned earlier, such as low wages and seasonal unemployment, which are exacerbated in urban settings where agricultural work is less prevalent and the job market is more competitive. Additionally, the high urban female unemployment rate aligns with social challenges, including gender roles and education barriers, which limit women's employment opportunities. The data also reflects environmental factors; with a largely agrarian economy, Bihar's workforce might lack diversification, making them more vulnerable to economic shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic. This underscores the need for comprehensive policy interventions to improve the agricultural sector's resilience, enhance social security coverage, and ensure better working conditions to reduce unemployment rates.

Table 06 : State-wise Percentage Distribution of Male Workers by Employment Status (2020-21)

Source : Periodic Labour Force Survey (MoSPI), 2021

The table 06 data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (2020-21) illustrates the employment status of male workers in Bihar, emphasizing the prominence of self-employment and casual labor in the state. A significant 63.1% of male workers in Bihar are self-employed, a category that includes small-scale farmers and those running their own businesses, which is notably higher than the national average of 54.5%. This figure points to a substantial number of individuals likely engaged in agricultural activities, reflective of Bihar's agrarian-based economy. The percentage of regular wage earners and salaried workers is relatively low at 7.7%, compared to 23.2% nationally, indicating fewer formal employment opportunities and highlighting the importance of agriculture as a primary source of livelihood.

Furthermore, the category of casual labor, which constitutes 29.2% of the workforce in Bihar, surpasses the national average of 22.2%. This sector often includes agricultural laborers who work seasonally or on a temporary basis, correlating with issues of seasonal unemployment, underemployment, and the challenges of low wages and poor working conditions previously discussed. The data underscores the economic vulnerability faced by a significant portion of Bihar's male workforce and the need for policies that focus on providing more stable employment opportunities, enhancing working conditions, and strengthening income security within the agricultural sector.

The Periodic Labour Force Survey (2020-21) provides a state-wise distribution of female workers by employment status, offering perspective on women's labor in Bihar in comparison to national figures. In Bihar, a substantial 68.4% of female workers are categorized as self-employed, which is higher than the national average of 58.4%. This includes 29.3% who are own-account workers and 39.1% who assist in household enterprises, indicating a significant engagement in informal, often agriculture-related, family businesses. Regular wage or salaried employment among women is markedly low at 7.8% in Bihar, in stark contrast to the national average of 20.2%, reflecting limited formal employment opportunities for women in the state. Casual labor accounts for 23.8% of female employment in Bihar, slightly higher than the national figure of 21.5%. This data aligns with the economic and social factors previously discussed: low labor force participation rates for women, gendered economic vulnerability, and the prominence of seasonal and informal work in agriculture. It underscores the importance of targeting agricultural and social policies to enhance the working conditions and economic stability of women in Bihar, particularly those in the agricultural sector.

Suggestion for the policy makers

Based on the findings and analysis presented in the research paper "Socio-Economic Condition of Agriculture Labourers in Bihar," there are some policy recommendations aimed at improving the working conditions and economic stability of agricultural laborers in the Bihar state:

Enhance Wage Structures: Implement policies to ensure fair and equitable wages for agricultural laborers that are at least on par with the national average. This could involve setting minimum wage standards specific to the agricultural sector and regularly adjusting them to account for inflation and cost of living changes.

Improve Working Conditions: Enforce regulations to improve the working conditions of agricultural laborers. This includes providing access to basic amenities like clean drinking water, sanitation facilities, and protective gear. Additionally, introducing guidelines for reasonable working hours and breaks can help prevent exploitation and health issues.

Expand Healthcare and Social Security Access: Increase the coverage of health insurance and social security benefits for agricultural workers, especially those in informal employment. This could be achieved through government-sponsored schemes or partnerships with private insurance providers, ensuring that all agricultural laborers have access to essential healthcare services and financial support during emergencies or periods of unemployment.

Support for Seasonal and Casual Laborers: Develop programs and policies specifically targeted at supporting seasonal and casual agricultural laborers. This could include providing financial assistance during off-season periods, skill development programs to enable diversification of income sources, and access to credit facilities for small-scale farming or other entrepreneurial ventures.

Land Reform and Tenancy Rights Protection: Implement land reform policies to address issues of landlessness and fragmented landholdings. Strengthen tenancy rights and ensure the enforcement of laws to protect tenant farmers from exploitation. Updating and digitizing land records can also help in ensuring transparent and fair land transactions and tenancy agreements.

Promote Agricultural Education and Training: Invest in agricultural education and training programs to enhance the skills and knowledge of agricultural laborers. This could involve training in modern farming techniques, sustainable agricultural practices, and the use of technology in agriculture to increase productivity and income.

Focus on Women Laborers: Develop targeted initiatives to address the specific challenges faced by female agricultural laborers, such as wage disparities and lower participation rates. This could include women-centric skill development programs, childcare support for working mothers, and initiatives to encourage the participation of women in agricultural activities.

These recommendations aim to create a more equitable and sustainable agricultural sector in Bihar, ensuring that the laborers who form the backbone of this sector have a stable income, improved working conditions, and access to essential services. Implementing these policies would require a coordinated effort between various government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the agricultural community itself.

The research on the socio-economic conditions of agricultural laborers in Bihar has brought to light several critical challenges that these workers face. A pivotal finding of this study is the substantial wage disparity that exists between agricultural laborers in Bihar and the national average. In 2021, for instance, the average daily wage for unskilled agricultural labor in Bihar was approximately INR 277, significantly lower than the national average of around INR 321​​. This wage gap not only highlights the financial struggles of these workers but also underlines the broader socio-economic discrepancies within the agricultural sector in India.

Moreover, the research has shed light on the deplorable working conditions endured by agricultural laborers in Bihar. Long working hours, lack of proper sanitation facilities, and exposure to harmful pesticides without adequate protective gear are commonplace. These conditions contribute not only to the financial precarity of the workers but also pose serious health risks, further exacerbating their vulnerability.

Additionally, the study highlights the need for targeted policy interventions to address these challenges. The findings suggest that improving wage structures, ensuring better working conditions, and providing access to healthcare and social security benefits are crucial steps toward enhancing the well-being of agricultural laborers in Bihar. These interventions are not just essential for the immediate upliftment of the laborers but are also critical for the sustainable development of the agricultural sector in Bihar.

In conclusion, this research underscores the urgent need to reform the agricultural labor market in Bihar. Addressing the wage disparities, poor working conditions, and lack of social security measures requires a multifaceted approach involving policy changes, increased governmental support, and awareness among the laborers about their rights. It is imperative that these issues be addressed comprehensively to ensure the socio-economic upliftment of agricultural laborers and, by extension, the broader agricultural sector in Bihar. The study's findings provide a foundation for policymakers and stakeholders to understand the depth of these challenges and to formulate effective strategies to mitigate them.

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