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Intermarriages are universal. India has a long history of intermarriages. Intermarriages are connected with romantic love and depart from traditional normative system of arranged marriages, which is embedded in caste system. Though intermarriages are increasing in numbers in modern Indian context, resistance, tendency of non-acceptance and sporadic incidents of violence are also reported across the nook and corner of the sub-continent. Issues and aspects of intermarriages in the age of globalization are being transformed just as the social structure is being transformed by the same agencies- technology, ideology, economic and social reforms. The present paper is an attempt to examine the problem of acceptance of intermarriages and question of identity among intermarried couples. This paper is empirical in nature and is informed by twin objectives: They intend to:

1.     examine the problems of acceptance of intermarriages by in-laws and

2.     explore the problem of identities in the life of intermarried couples

30 respondents were selected through snowball sampling and interviewed to investigate the objectives of the study. Analysis of the data reveals that nearly half of the respondents faced the problems of acceptance of their marriages by their in-laws. Beneath the rejection of intermarriages by in-laws have to be found the operation of notions of purity-pollution, pride about one’s own group and prejudices about others. More than half of the respondents admitted that their children are identified on the lines of father’s caste and in the case of interreligious marriages, either of the couple undergo the pressures to give up their identity and culture and severing their contacts with their parents’ family.

Objective of this paper is twofold: They intend to:

1. Examine the problems of acceptance of intermarriages by in-laws and

2.Explore the problem of identities in the life of intermarried couples and their children.

Edward Westermarck in his classic History of Human Marriage cites the practice of intermarriage as idea prevailing across the world on the basis of race, caste, religion and culture. It cites the practice of intermarriages and its recognition in Ancient India. Westermarck further cited that castes were not able to maintain their purity and even amidst Brahmins there were some sub castes as splinter groups.

Robert King Merton used the concept of intermarriages in his classic work Social Theory and Social Structure (1968). Merton discusses about intermarriages in chapter titled ‘Intermarriage and social structure’. Observing in American context, he said that  every family has its own culture and exchanges it with other family through marriage. When marital relations take place between two different cultures, it becomes intermarriages. In his view, every marriage is intermarriage. Viewing from this point of view, every caste in Indian subcontinent is culturally distinct from other. Hence marriage between the members of different castes can be interpreted as intermarriage.

Kingsley Davis used the concept of intermarriages in Indian context as though marriages here only take place between the same caste, but also in sub castes.

Ghurye (1969) and Kolenda (1978) express the similar opinion that caste and intermarriages are directly contradictory to each other. Caste and caste as system evolved on the basis of endogamy. Hence, the violation of endogamy is violation of caste. Castes, thus oppose intermarriages apprehending that it weakens their base.

C T Kannan conducted the study on intermarriages in the city of Bombay observed that the role of women education as significant leverage in intermarriages. Women education besides giving the freedom to choose their spouses also helped in increasing the age of marriage.

Chintamani (1973) conducted study about intermarriages in Andhra Pradesh. Most of the parents interviewed from rural areas wanted their children to marry from their own group. Castes located in the low region of hierarchy attempting to conserve their status were reported by the study. Endogamy is not only practiced by castes located in the higher region of hierarchy but also lower castes considering marriages within the caste as preferred. Only few groups have shown interest in Intercaste marriages.

Study by Reddy et. al (1984) has identified that people belonging to scheduled castes showed more tendency to marry outside their castes. Economic context of middle classes that is residing in urban areas with good education and employment with modern outlook were identified as factors influencing intermarriages. Moreover, decision to intermarry was found among people at relatively higher age than at younger page. If Intercaste marriages were 9.9 percent and interreligious marriages were at

K M Kapadia (1966) interviewed graduates of the University in study conducted on Intercaste marriages to find their attitudes about inter marriages. Most of the parents have agreed to accept their children’s marriage outside their castes; whereas, 1/3 of the respondents have expressed dissatisfaction for marrying their children outside their castes.

Prasad (1957) and Banerjee et.al (1978) have noted the effects of industrialization and urbanization in breaking caste system

Corwin A. Lauren (1977) in Caste, Class and the Love Marriage: Social Change in India observed that education institutions and recreation centres have provided space for love marriages. Protection given by special marriage act and urban ward migration are identified as facilitating factors

Avinash Bale (2013) studied the educated youth of Kolhapur city to understand their opinion and views about inter caste marriages.  72 percent of the respondents interviewed expressed the opinion in favour of intermarriages. For them marriage is ‘pure mental union of two people irrespective of the caste, class and religion (p. 26). Though the educated youths are in favour of intermarriages, they admitted that family plays an important role in the decision making of marriages which act as constraining factor in this regard. Aspects of isolation and exclusion, insecurity, reputation of family come in the way of intermarriages though the youths are in favour of it.

Srinivas Goli et.al (2013) attempted to understand the extent of mixed and conventional marriages and to examine the influencing factors, particularly social and economic factors. Keeping the data of Human Development Report 2005 in view, they have tried to identify the extent of mixed marriages. They defined mixed marriages as marriages between the individuals belonging different race, culture and nationality. While analysing the outcomes of the Human development report 2005, they have identified the increase in the average age at which women marry. Study reported the increase in mixed marriages from 3.5 percent to 6.1 percent and increase in interreligious marriages to the tune of 1.6 percent. Women who marry outside their caste and or religion are educated with good economic status from urban background, which also implies the lesser number of people from scheduled castes and Muslims. It brings out the correlation between progress in educational and economic status of women and increase in intermarriages. Women with good education and economic background and involved in respectable jobs are able to select their matches transcending the boundaries of caste and religion.

Kumudin Das et. al (2011) discussed patterns and determining factors of Intercaste and interreligious marriages. They have used the data of NHFS from the year 2005-06. Intercaste marriages in India are at 10 percent and interreligious marriages at 2.1 percent. Noticeable aspect found in the discussion of this article is that among 10 percent of intermarriages,  4.97 percent of women married the persons who belong to lower castes than theirs and women married the persons who belong to higher castes than theirs is 4.90 percent.

Tripad Chaudhari et.al (2020) observes that castes are opposed to constitutional values such as equality, social mobility, profession and laws of nature. Since endogamy is the basis of caste system, Intercaste marriages naturally undermine the very premise of caste system.

Illal Ahmed Kumar (2021) while reviewing the literature on intermarriages observes that due to the influence of education and modernity, intermarriages are increasing; globalization and development process is impacting the institution of marriage. In India, studies on intermarriages are largely thematic and conceptual and whereas, empirical studies are case studies. He used the concept of intermarriages which comprises of Intercaste, interreligious, intercommunity, inter-ethnic marriages under its ambit. 

The present study is empirical in nature. It selected 30 respondents for the study through snowball sampling and interviewed method was adopted to collect the data. Study was conducted in the city of Mysuru. Mysuru being the cultural city of the Karnataka State has always been the hub of progressive ideas, achievements in education, social movements, and literary activities. In fact, Mysuru played the important role in awakening the consciousness of generations and in modernizing the system.

Profile of the Respondents

Table 01-Educational Profile of the Respondents

N=30

Table 01 presents the details about educational profile of the respondents. All the respondents are graduates. 33.33 percent of the respondents are graduates followed by 26.60 percent of the respondents who are post graduates. Conspicuous aspect of this table is that more than 33 percent of the respondents have doctorate degrees. This brings to the forefront the correlation between education and intermarriages.

Table 02-Nature of Work

N=30

Table 02 indicates the working profile of the respondents. Researchers and Government employees are bigger in numbers- 28.57 respondents from each category followed by respondents working as Engineers and Police department with 14 percent each. 7 percent of the respondents are Principals and Heads of the Departments followed by Professors and Lecturers with 7 percent

Intermarriages and Acceptance

This study wants to understand how the intermarriages of respondents were accepted by their families. Nearly 57 percent of the respondents said that their marriages were accepted by their families and 43 percent of the respondents reported that they faced resistance and opposition by their families to their decision of intermarriage and faced the problem of denial and non acceptance.

Table 03 Did your Families accept you after your marriage?

N=30

Positive Scenario and Liberal Outlook

A respondent of this study, who is teaching professional working in government higher educational institution, said that

‘I married the person outside my caste as marrying him, was better option than the proposal given by my parents within the caste’.

She shared that her parents accepted her love outside the caste and arranged the inter caste marriage in conventional way. She belongs to well-educated family and hence the members of family particularly her parents and siblings had liberal and rational outlook regarding love and intermarriages. Though her parents altogether did not reject the caste, individual and human relations were more important for them than caste. This case presents a positive and optimist scenario and is harbinger for a liberal society

Another respondent, who is working as researcher in a central government funded research institute at Mysuru, is a native of Odisha. She married a person from Karnataka who was working with her in the same institute for 03 years. On probing her decision to marry outside the caste, she shared that her decision to marry outside the caste, region and culture was instrumental in protecting her liberty and autonomy from male dominated system and culture associated with her caste. Moreover, if she wanted to continue working in the present job which she likes and also the city of Mysuru towards which she thinks as sign of independence and autonomy, she had to marry a person of her choice. Leaving her job means losing the independence, her favourite city and surrendering to the same pain and agony which her mother underwent in the setting of male dominance. Thus, her decision to intermarry was deliberate as she wanted to construct the life in her own way which is embodiment of freedom and better life. Her husband was the only one child of the family from northern part of Karnataka and there was no problem in accepting his marriage proposal from his parent’s side.

Blended Scenario-Problems of Adjustment and Accommodation

Case of a respondent working as Assistant professor in Government College who married outside her caste presents different picture. She was in courtship with a person who was researcher in a University. She experienced break up in their relations. This pushed her to problems; her family could not seek bridegroom as her community members knew that she was in love with person from another caste. As the time elapsed, she developed romantic relations with another person who belonged to different religion; to which, his father converted who belonged to lower strata of the society. Women belonged to Lingayat caste and boy was from Christianity with lower caste background.  This presents the things contrary to common expectations and beliefs. Since the husband belonged to different religion and his antecedents were from lower caste, his family accepted his marriage with girl of higher caste; whereas the parents of wife had no other ways but to accept the marriage due to stigma attached with previous romantic relations. After the marriage, a little degree of adjustment and accommodation exists between two families. Parents from husband side do not find encouraging visiting their son’s house due to actions of her daughter-in law. She did not accept her in-laws in the same way just how her husband accepted her parents whole heartedly. Thus, there was difference between them in treating their respective in-laws. Besides, she did not accept his religion and culture; whereas, he was persuaded to follow her beliefs, rituals and practices. He displays the liberal outlook and accommodation and whereas, the same has not come from his wife side. From gender point of view, contrary to the expected outcomes where women stand to suffer in intermarriages, husband here had to undergo the problems of adjustment and had to face non-denial from her wife and family. But people from low castes and other religions bear the brunt of denial, rejection and exclusion in intermarriages which stands accepted in this case and follows larger the pattern.

Intermarriage in Urban Setting: Class, Food Culture and Preferences

Rajini (name changed) having been groomed in urban setting displays positive mind set about intermarriages. She is commerce graduate and native of Mysuru.  Rajni is Jain in her religion and married a person from Brahmin caste 25 years back. She expressed that both of their families did not have problems to their intermarriage as both of their families are highly educated and are economically from affluent sections. Only precondition that prevailed in both of their families in the matter of their marriage was to select their matches who was vegetarian in food preference and culture, should be educated and placed in a good job. She shared that more than 8-10 people from her family married outside their caste. None of them experienced any problems of adjustment and from their respective families. Since her religion strongly believes in non-violence, they could not accept non vegetarian food practices. That is the reason why they developed preferences over food practices as crucial thing in intermarriage. The fact that she had freedom to make her choice in marriage twenty five years back itself speaks about the liberal family environment on the matter of caste and religion. She shared that her relatives belong to different regions, castes and are from different cultural background.

Non Acceptance of Intermarriages in Families

This section examines why intermarriages were not accepted by families of couples.

Reasons for not accepting intermarriage and daughter in law

Out On probing further why 13 respondents’ marriages were not accepted, 04 respondents said that they were not welcomed due to their caste identity; 06 respondents admitted that they were not accepted due to their caste and religious identities and 03 respondents pointed out at their class conditions along with their caste identity as reason for resistance, opposition and non-acceptance of their marriage.

Table 04 Reasons for not Accepting Intermarriages

Table 5-Changes in the mind set of In-laws in accepting Intermarriages

As we discussed above 13 respondents said that their marriage was not accepted by their families. We wanted to further probe whether there were any changes in families of both the sides in accepting their marriages. 11 respondents constituting 84.61 percent of the respondents said that they were finally accepted by their families. But 02 respondents admitted that they are still not accepted by either side of their families. Hence, question remains nagging that why even after years of marriage, they were not accepted. This led us to examine them in depth as case studies. After subjecting them to further study, following details were revealed which is discussed in the following section.

Intermarriages and Isolation:  

Compared to inter caste marriages, interreligious marriages produce more harsh consequences to the couples particularly when it takes place between Hindus and Muslims. Prejudices and stereotypes formed between the religions get expressed when couple from different faiths marries. Couples who married outside their faith were interviewed in this study. Suresh belongs to backward caste from Hindu religion and his wife Seema belongs to Islam. Both the couple is working in police department. They developed liking for each other and married. This produced stiff resistance from their families. They were isolated by their respective families. Since they are government employees, they could protect themselves and afford to lead their life even amidst resistance. Though the husband was in employment they didn’t marry till his wife got employed. After 5-6 years, couple was accepted by husband’s family. But wife’s parents and family has not accepted them completely even today, though they depend upon their daughter for their financial, health needs and other exigencies. They need their daughter for their purposes but they are reluctant to accept their daughter and son-in-law.

Study of another intermarried couple presents the similar pattern. But theirs is Intercaste marriage. Sudha and Venkatesh were in courtship for two years before marrying. Venkatesh works in police department and belongs to shepherd caste (Kuruba). Sudha works as lab technician and belongs to weavers’ caste (Nekhara). Their love for each other culminated in marriage at the age of early 20s. Though both the families opposed the marriage at the beginning, siblings from Venkatesh family started visiting the couple after children were born. With the passage of time, husband’s parents changed their mind and accepted the couple. As husband is the elder son, who takes care of the needs and exigencies of family and his inevitability for the family might have caused changes in their mind to understand his decision of intermarriage. But parents of bride have not changed their mind even after one and half decade, though siblings visit her home. Sudha is the 5^th child of her family; she has two elder brothers and three elder sisters followed by a younger brother. She is the only child among daughters to study up to diploma level. Family strived to get her educated and weaved the dreams of future through her. But their aspirations were shattered when she eloped and married the person from other caste. Severity of their disappointment and frustration still prevents her parents and brother from accepting her intermarriage, though Sudha and her sisters visit each other houses. To that extent, isolation is eased.

Intermarriages and Migration

Migration brings social changes. Individuals migrate to other places in pursuit of employment and better earning opportunities. Migrating to different place becomes sigh of relief and sign of anonymity, freedom and liberation from harsh conditions in native society-from restrictions and repulsions. This study wanted to explore whether intermarried couples had to migrate after their marriage.

Table 06- Did You Migrate After Your Marriage

N=30

08 respondents admitted that they have migrated after their marriage in search of better employment and earning opportunities. Whereas, the 22 respondents admitted that they did not find the need to migrate out of their present location. Reason for this pattern of response is due to the fact that respondents before their marriage have migrated to city of Mysuru which is hub for education and higher educational and research institutions. They married only after pursuing their education and finding the jobs in their life. Pursuing education in urban setting and finding employment there itself has instilled in them progressive attitudes, freedom of opinion and thinking giving leverage to their decision to marry outside their castes and religions.

Question of Identity among Intermarried Couples: Role of Caste and Religion

Table 08-    Question of Identity among Children of Intermarried Couples

N=28

One of the objectives of the study is to to explore whether intermarried couple and their children are able to transcend the identities of caste and religion in their life. In order to examine this, we have asked respondents a question whether their children were identified with caste identities of either of the spouses. Out of 30 respondents we studied for the present study, 28 couples have children. More than 76 percent of the respondents, that is 21 in number, said that their children were identified with their caste. Among 21 respondents, one respondent who is working in Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysuru shared that her son is identified with her caste, that is, on the lines of mother.  23 percent of the respondents said ‘No’. On probing further why their children were not identified with caste, they said that they have identified their children in school documents as under general category as most of them are employed in state and central government sectors. Besides they demonstrate progressive outlook that they don’t want their children to be identified on the lines of caste. Principle reason behind their decision is their conviction that since they intermarried without considering caste and religion, they do not want to identify their children with their castes. Moreover, they are still minor; they decided to leave the matter of identity to their children to decide once they attain their maturity. 

When respondents were further asked about the question of their children getting married from different castes, 23 respondents admitted that they do not have any objections in this regard and they are open to it. Whereas 05 respondents said that they want their children to marry the persons belonging to castes of theirs husbands.

Intermarriages are universal phenomenon. Marriage decides the nature of group; that is, decides the membership in group. A differentiated society is a diverse society with the presence of heterogeneous groups and complex form of stratification. This study used the concept intermarriage instead of intercaste, interreligious marriage. Intermarriage as a concept is broader in scope which includes under its ambit all forms of intermarriage such as intercaste, inter religious, interracial, intercultural marriages.  Intercaste and interreligious marriages assume significance in Indian context. Castes and caste system have shaped Indian society since more than millennium. With the intensification of the processes of social change in the forms of westernization, modernization and globalization, people’s perception and beliefs about marriages have undergone changes which are manifested in the form of intermarriages. Present study was conducted in the city of Mysuru with twin objectives in reference:

1. Examine the problems of acceptance of intermarriages by in-laws and
2. Explore the problem of identities in the life of intermarried couples and their children
3. Respondents were selected for the study by employing method of snow ball sampling. Data have analyzed and presented in the preceding sections. Following are the broad findings which we have identified in this study:
4. Urban Oriented- Respondents are from urban background. They have hailed from Mysuru and some of them have come to Mysuru in their young age to pursue their education. Thus their views and beliefs were groomed in urban setting and displays positive attitude in favour of intermarriages.
5. Highly Educated- All respondents are highly educated, which is amply illustrated in table 01. This bears correlation with their open mind set about intermarriages, which is evident from table
6. Employment- Except two respondents, all of them are working in different sectors. Notable among them are professors, scientists, bureaucrats and from police department. This is another contributing factor to intermarriage, particularly women who after attaining employment have exercised their independence and autonomy in making important decision of their life
7. Assertion of Agency- as we have discussed above respondents are from urban setting with higher education and employment have exercised their will in deciding to marry outside their groups that is caste and religions. It shows that respondents have exercised their freedom in their decisions to marry outside their caste and religion which clearly implies the assertion of agency over the constraints of structure
8. Problem of Isolation- Intermarried couples in our study experienced isolation and exclusion from their families. But after the elapse of time, changes in the minds of family members from both the sides of the couple are noted. Whereas, the couples, who marry outside their religions experience isolation, which is more severe in impact and long lasting
9. Notions of Purity and Pollution- One of the major reasons for non-acceptance of intermarriages from in laws of the couples lies in the notion of purity and pollution and prejudices about other castes and religion. In a traditional caste system, relation between castes and food were looked from pure and impure notions. Women were compared to earthen pots and men were compared brass pot. Women coming in contact with men from low caste are considered as more pollution. Though the notions of purity and pollution apply to men women as well, it is considered as external and temporary; whereas pollution that happens to women is considered to be internal and enduring.

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