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The Aril river is draining through the inter fluves areas between Ganga and Ramganga river, which is northern part of Indo-Gangetic basin. The present study aims to access the geomorphic analysis of the Aril river basin and its implication on landscape evolution. The Aril river basin covers an area of about 2106.49 sq km in the middle Ganga plain. The study area situated between latitude 27°54’22” N to 28°42’47” North and longitude of 78°40’54” E to 79°25’23” East. The river basin covers an area of 2106.49 Km² and Perimeter 244.54Km. It has main channel length (215.317Km.), basin area length (114.83 Km) and basin width (25.12Km). The Maximum elevation of the area~218m and the Minimum is ~146m (Figure1.1). It comprises the districts of Moradabad, Sambhal, Bareilly and Budaun. The study area lies in the North West part of Uttar Pradesh in India. The watershed boundary is separated in the north Ramganga River and south-west Sot river basin. Sot River is the tributary of Ganga River. The quantitative approach of basin prioritization of the Aril River and its four forth-order sub-basin was carried out by the morphometric parameters using S.O.I. toposheets and Carto-DEM data. In the present study area problem is associated with the change in landscape elements so as the overall resource dynamics in the Aril River Basin. While addressing the situation in Aril River Basin area the Participatory Hydrological studies can be very effective method for River Basin protection and management of Natural Resources for insuring sustainable equitable flow of benefits. The Aril river basin is an integral part of Rohilkhand region.

1.     Analysis of stream network using geospatial techniques.

2.     To perform a morphometric assessment of the Aril River basin.

The morphometric analysis of river basin would be the first step in basic understanding of basin dynamics (Ali, S. A., & Khan, N., 2013), Gregory, K. J., & Walling, D. E., 1973) because it facilitates the relationship among different linear and aerial parameters (e.g. elongation ratio, form factor, slope, drainage density and drainage texture). The basin morphometric study of the different basins has been studied by various researches using conventional techniques ( Horton, R. E., 1945),. Sarp, G., Gec¸en, R., Toprak, V., & Du¨zgu¨n, S., 2011). In last few years, remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques were used in basin morphometric study (Krishnamurthy, J., Srinivas, G., Jayaram, V., & Chandrashekhar, M. G., 1996) , Rao, K. N., Latha, S. P., Kumar, A. P., & Krishna, H. M. (2010]. Morphometric analysis is a quantitative method for understanding various aspects that control the drainage network of a basin, viz. linear, areal, and relief parameters (Sarkar et al. 2020; Dimple et al. 2022). The morphometric analysis involves delineating drainage boundary and stream network, ordering the streams, computing the catchment area and perimeter, stream length, and evaluating morphometric parameters (Mangan et al. 2019; Sarkar et al. 2022). This helps to identify the various geological processes, geomorphological changes, and drainage pattern modifications that occurred over time due to natural phenomena (Abdeta et al. 2020; Iacobucci et al. 2022). Important morphometric parameters requires the investigation of various related drainage parameters such as drainage network, basin geometry, relief characteristics and drainage texture etc. (Rai et. al., 2014) and also helps for understanding of geological and geomorphological understanding of the area. Stream line of a basin not only describes the existing three dimensional geometry of the region but also help to describe its development process. River basins are the important elements of the fluvial landforms and a large quantity of study has focused on their geometric behaviors and characteristics, which contain the topology of the stream networks and quantitative analysis of drainage texture, pattern, shape, and relief characteristics (Abrahams1984; Huggett and Cheesman2002). On the other hand, drainage extraction from ASTER or SRTM digital elevation models (DEMs) is quite easy as it assumes that water will flow from higher to lower elevation but it needs systematic and organized method to get the results (Magesh, 2014). The morphomatric characteristics of the various river basins, watershed and sub-watershed have been done by many researchers and scientist and they analyzed these parameters for drainage basin characterization (Miller1953; Boulton1968; Gregory and Walling 1973; Gardiner 1975; Costa1987; Topaloglu 2002; Moussa 2003; Pareta, 2005, Mesa 2006; Angillieri 2008; Magesh et al. 2011and Bhagwat et al.2011, Magesh et al. 2012, Magesh et. al., 2013, Magesh et al., 2014, John Wilson et al. 2012, Singh et al. 2011, 2013 and 2014; Rai et. al., 2014; Sujatha et al. 2014 and 2015).

Study Area

The study area encompasses a geographical area, an integral part of the Rohilkhand region. The study area situated between latitude 27°54’22” N to 28°42’47” North and longitude of 78°40’54” E to 79°25’23” East. The river basin covers an area of 2106.49Km² and a Perimeter of 272.302 Km. The Maximum elevation of the area~218m and the Minimum is ~146m (Figure1.1). The study area falls within the Moradabad, Budaun, and Bareilly district of the Rohikhand region covered by Survey of India topographical sheet no.53 P/3, 53P/4, 53P/8, 53L/10, 53L/14, and 54M/5. The study area lies in the North West part of Uttar Pradesh in India. The watershed boundary is separated in the north Ramganga River and south-west Sot river basin. Sot River is the tributary of Ganga River. The scanned stream network map was geo referenced and converted into digital format using Arc GIS 9.3 version GIS software. ASTER (Advanced Space born Thermal Emission and Reflection and Radiometer) digital elevation data set (30m resolution) was used for computing relief parameters. The Base Map of the study area will be prepared on a scale of 1:50,000. It comprises the districts of Moradabad, Sambhal, Bareilly, and Budaun. The study area lies in the North West part of Uttar Pradesh in India. The watershed boundary is separated in the north Ramganga River and south-west Sot river basin. Sot River is the tributary of Ganga River.

The total basin area of the Aril River is 2106.49 km². The drainage pattern is dendritic pattern and it is depended by the landscape, geographical and rainfall condition of the basin area. Aster DEM is used to make slope, aspect and contour maps of the River basin. Based on the stream order, the Son basin is designated as forth order River basin to appreciate the morphometric parameters as given in. Hydrogeological explanations, integrated with drainage analysis, deliver valuable information regarding wide relationships among the geological framework and characteristics of the basin (Singh et al.2014). The morphometric analysis can be attained through the estimate of linear, areal and relief aspects of the river basin. Quantitative analysis of Aril basin has been completed to evaluate the drainage characteristics using Arc GIS 9.3 software for calculation and topology building of different morphometric parameters. Main linear and arial parameters and their characteristic are calculated such as basin area, perimeter, basin length , bifurcation ratio (Rb), drainage density (Dd), stream frequency (Fs) circulatory ratio (Rc), elongation ratios (Re) etc.

4.1. Geometric parameters

Table 3 highlights the geometric parameters of the Aril River basin. The catchment area of the Aril River basin is 2106.49 km², basin length and mean basin width are 215.317 Km and 25.12 km, respectively, and basin perimeter  are 244.54 km respectively.

4.2. Linear parameters

The linear parameters of a basin are directly linked to the stream pattern and are impacted by topographic character.

4.2.1. Stream order (U)

Watershed analysis, establishing the stream order is the fundamental step and is obtained by the orderly hierarchical ranking of streams. The stream order of the Aril River is determined by following Strahler’s method, which is most widely used for stream ordering. The Strahler method allocates first order for the streams with no tributaries, second order stream for the stream obtained when two first-order streams join. When two streams with differing stream orders join in, the new stream is given the highest order. The order of basin is commonly considered to be the highest stream order; the Aril River Basin has the highest stream order of four, as shown in Figure 3. It is discovered that the stream pattern of the Aril basin is dendritic. This pattern is caused by the uniform resistance of the rocks to the flow. The lower-order streams of the Aril watershed are more numerous than the higher-order streams (Table 4).

 

                                                  (A)

 

(B)

Figure- 4.1 Drainage Oder(A) & Stream Order(B) of the Aril river basin.

4.2.2. Stream number (Nu)

The Aril number is the quantity of the stream segments that make up each stream order. The overall number of streams in th Aril watershed is 2106.49. With the number of streams in the first, second, third and fourth orders being 1520 (78.09%), 358 (18.54%), 153 (3.18%), and 74.3 (0.19%), 4 (0.24%), respectively, as presented in Table 4. The first and second orders constitute 96.63% of the total stream number. The rough landscape and the presence of more complex, sedimentary rocks can be attributed to the more streams in the all over orders. The connection between the stream number and the stream order is represented in Figure 4, which shows that the increase in the stream order leads to a decrease in the stream number. The graph displays a linear relationship and fits Horton’s law (Horton 1945). These findings are significant in the analysis of the basin characteristics like drainage pattern, permeability, and infiltration capacity.

Table- 2 Stream order and Bifurcation Ratio of the Aril River basin

4.2.3. Stream length (Lu)

The Aril River length of each order is referred to as the stream length. When analysing a watershed’s surface runoff characteristics, stream length is essential. Longer stream lengths normally indicate a flatter river plane, whereas shorter lengths indicate a steep gradient with fine texture (Sarkar et al. 2020). It is also understood that relatively result in the formation of fewer streams and relatively longer streams. In dissimilarity, less permeable formations form a vast number of shorter-length streams (Magesh & Chandrasekar 2014). GIS software is used to compute the stream length; Table 4 shows the overall stream length for each stream order. Aril basin’s total stream length is 919.34 km, and the stream lengths of first, second, third and fourth orders are 385.76 km, 242.01 km, 147.09 km, and 144.48 km, in that order.

4.2.4. Mean stream length (Lsm)

The mean stream length is a measure for a basin’s features that may be used to examine the different components of its drainage system. It may be used to analyse runoff and soil deposition. It is the proportion of a stream’s overall stream length to the number of segments that make up that stream. Table 4 shows the mean stream length in sequence, which ranges from 0.93 to 144.48 km and has a total stream length of 156.5 km. The mean stream lengths of all orders are greater than those of their lower orders and smaller than those of their next higher orders.

4.2.5. Stream length ratio (Lur)

The stream length ratio calls the length of a stream divided by the length of the stream that is next lower in the order. The research area’s stream length ratio values range from 0.63 to 0.99, with the mean stream length ratio being 0.74. The prime stream length ratio (0.99) is observed in the fourth-order stream, which shows that the land it drains is more permeable and has moderate slopes than the area drained by lower-order streams.

4.2.6. Bifurcation ratio (Rb)

Bifurcation ratio is the ratio of the total number of streams of one order to the total number of streams of the next higher order. It provides information on the watershed’s shape and runoff performance and is a helpful metric for identifying River areas. The basin’s bifurcation ratio ranges from 4.21 to 17.00, with a mean value of 9.01. The bifurcation ratio ranges from 2 (in flat and rolling surfaces) to 4 or 5 (in hilly or highly dissected). The Aril basin has a flatter or rolling surface as the bifurcation ratio value is very low. The result demonstrates that the study area is regulated by lithology and structural factors (Table 4).

4.3. Aerial parameters

The evaluation of aerial morphometric parameters is presented in Table 2, and the following subsections discuss the findings.

4.3.1. Drainage density (Dd)

Drainage density measures the total length of streams passing through a watershed (Potter 1957). It describes the evolution of the stream and its spacing (Figure 6). It is affected by various factors such as climate, relief, soil, rock, source area, basin density, and landscape evolution. It shows symmetry among the topsoil and rocks’ transmissible qualities and the overland flow’s erosive potential. Dd strongly controls both the time of the concentration and the quantity of the release. Low Dd values refer to reducing the surface runoff in a watershed, eventually improving groundwater (Horton 1945). The Dd value of the Aril basin is approximately 0.44 km/km². The studied region is porous because the Dd value is less than 5 km/km². It is mostly impacted by the bed material’s ability for infiltration and resistance to erosion. Dd of a watershed considerably impacts groundwater potentiality. Low gradient, extensive plant cover, and the porous nature of surface and subsurface soils contribute to the watershed’s low drainage density, while high drainage conditions offer the opposite situation (Nag 1998).

 4.3.2. Stream frequency (Sf)

The number of streams per unit area depends on stream frequency (Horton 1945). The capacity for infiltration and basin relief all affect stream frequency. It offers details on the basin’s reaction to the runoff process. It is affected by rainfall, basin relief, rock resistance, and drainage density of the basin (Thomas et al. 2010). While limited preciousness and less accessible surface flow reduce the value of Sf in a plateau environment .The Sf is lithology dependent and closely correlated with the amount of infiltration. A steep slope, more runoff, and poor infiltration are indicated by higher Sf values (Horton 1932, 1945). The Sf value of the Aril basin is 0.25 per km², implying that the basin has low landscape, relatively porous surface, and subsurface materials, and low to moderate runoff. The lithology of the basin primarily influences Stream frequency frequent draining will result in the increased surface runoff.

 

                                                 (a)    

 

             (b)

Figure- 5 Stream Frequency (a) & Drainage density (b) of Aril River basin.

4.3.3. Drainage texture (Dt)

The drainage texture denotes the infiltration capacity of a drainage system (Horton 1945). It is affected by vegetation, relief, soil type, lithology, climate, and development phase (Smith 1950). The value of drainage texture for the Aril basin is 2.61. The drainage texture may be categorized into five groups (Smith 1950), the drainage texture may be divided into five categories: extremely coarse (0), coarse (0.0–0.10), moderate (0.11–0.50), fine (0.51–1.00), and very fine (1.10–2.20). The Aril basin has a coarse texture, according to the measured drainage texture value.

4.3.4. Texture ratio (Rt)

In the catchment area, the distances between each drainage line are represented by the texture ratio (Rt). In addition, it has a favourable relationship with the denudation procedures in that area. The research area’s texture ratio is 1.70, which suggests less runoff and more permeability.

4.3.5. Shape factor

Shape characteristics that can be used to describe the nature of a hydrograph include form factor (Horton 1932), circulatory ratio (Miller 1953; Gardiner & Park 1978), and elongation ratio (Schumm 1956). Watershed area and length impact the form factor and elongation ratio, even as basin area and the area of a circle whose diameter is equal to the basin perimeter are measured to calculate the circulation ratio. Form factors have values ranging from 0 to 1, with 0 denoting an elongated shape and 1 denoting a circular basin. In the basin, higher peak flows with shorter duration are indicated by higher values (close to 1), and vice versa. For the Aril basin, the form factor, circulation ratio, and elongation ratio values were 0.16, 0.44, and 0.450, respectively. These numbers suggest that the watershed has a slightly elongated form, reflecting flat to gentle flow peaks lasting longer. Due to the elongated nature of the Aril basin, the hydrograph would have flat and longer flow durations, increasing the potential for water to percolate and possibly supplement the groundwater. The elongated nature, the basin gets considerable runoff from lower-order streams

4.3.6. Constant of channel maintenance (C)

The constant of channel maintenance is a useful way to represent how much space is essential to support a unit length of a linear stream channel (Shreve 1967). It is used to estimate the erodibility of a watershed. It is influenced by the slope, geological context, and vegetation cover of the basin and is inversely relative to the drainage density. Regions with resistant rock types, highly permeable surfaces, or good forest cover have a high value of C and a low Dd. Normally, the impermeable nature of rocks is related to the lower values of C. The C for the Aril river basin is 2.29, reflecting better material infiltration and permeability, a small vegetative cover, and reasonably flat pain rock types.

4.3.7. Fitness ratio (Rf)

Fitness Ratio measures the topographic fitness, which is the ratio of the main channel length to perimeter of the basin (Melton 1957). The Rf value of the Aril basin is 0.47.

4.3.8. Infiltration number (If)

The infiltration number measures the river basin’s runoff potential and infiltration capability. It is obtained by multiplying Sf and Dd (Schumm 1956). It shows the difference between the high and low infiltration capability. For example, the high value of If implies higher infiltration capability, while the low value implies lower infiltration capability in the area. If of the Aril basin is 0.23, indicating a Mediam infiltration capability and reduced runoff in the study area.

4.3.9. Shape index (Si)

The shape index, which is dimensions, is the reciprocal of the form factor of river basin. The value of Si of the Aril basin is 6.289. A higher shape index indicates a weak flood discharge period.

4.4. Relief parameters (3D)

The basin relief (R) is the difference between the highest and lowest elevation within the catchment area of river. The R is used to determine the stream gradient and carrying capacity of channel and also provide the better understanding of denudational processes of the basin

4.4.1. Basin relief (H)

Basin relief is a fundamental variable that can help us understand a watershed’s mass movement and erosion processes (Schumm 1956; Yadav et al. 2014). The highest and lowest elevations of the Aril basin are 218m and 146 m above the mean sea level, respectively. Considering the difference between the lowest and highest elevation, the total basin relief is calculated; in this case, it is 72 m.

4.4.2. Relief ratio (Rh)

The relief ratio is a measure for the basin’s overall steepness. It shows the severity of erosion in the basin and is linked to basin length (Lb) (Schumm 1956). The relief ratio of the Aril  basin is 6.3 m/km, indicating flat to moderate slopes.

 Figure–6 Relative Relief of Aril River basin  

Figure-7 Average slope of Aril River Basin

 

Figure-8 dissection index of Aril basin

Figure –9 Absolute Relief of Aril Basin

4.4.3. Relative relief (Rr)

 Relative relief is defined as the ratio of the highest relief to the perimeter of the basin. It signifies that the steeper the slope, the greater the surface above its base. Aril basin’s relative relief value of 89.157 m/km indicates lesser variation in the basin’s topography.

 4.4.4. Dissection index (Di)

 The value of the dissection index is used to comprehend the nature and the extent to which terrain is dissected (Nir 1957; Dongare et al. 2022). The Aril River basin has a dissection index value of 0.33, which specifies that the terrain has been significantly dissected.

 4.4.5. Ruggedness number (Rn)

 The ruggedness number is determined by the  river basin relief and the drainage density. It measures the slope’s length and sharpness (Strahler 1958; Prakash et al. 2019). Higher values of Rn reflect higher relief and drainage density, as well as steeper and longer slopes of the basin (Strahler 1958). The value of Rn of the Aril basin of 0.031; this shows that the study area has essential normal regarding relief and drainage density and is less flat to soil erosion.

4.4.6. Melton ruggedness number (MRn)

 The MRn is a slope index that shows the point of relief ruggedness in a basin (Melton 1965). For instance, in the Aril River basin, the MRn value is 0.0016, a low value that denotes a nominal mainstream slow flow freely.

4.4.7. Slope (Sa)

The slope is a significant topographic aspect that significantly impacts runoff, river velocity, the severity of erosion, sediment transport, and sedimentation. Aril River basin’s slope ranges from 0° to 55.5° and is divided into five classes (Radwan et al. 2020): very low (0°–1.5°), low (1.6°–2.0°), moderate (2.1°–2.5°) and high (2.6°-  20.5°),  as shown in Figure 7. Higher slopes are found at the ridge line of the basin. Most of the area in the study area has flat to moderate slopes.

4.5. Morphotectonic aspects

4.5.1. The hypsometric curve and hypsometric integral

Hypsometry analysis entails measuring and investigating the relationship between the watershed’s size and altitude. It helps to assess the phase of development of a basin since it enables us to comprehend the amount of dissection and the stage of the erosion cycle (Strahler 1952; Gardner et al. 1990). The total of surface area at different altitudes over and beneath a datum is represented by a hypsometric curve. It is produced by graphing the ratio of the total basin area (a/A) beside the ratio of the total basin height (h/H). The HI is associated with the shape of the hypsometric curve because it is the ratio of the area beneath the hypsometric curve to the total area (Umrikar 2017). It made possible to understand the geologic history of erosion in the watershed due to hydrologic processes (Bishop & Shroder 2000). In addition, it offers a straightforward morphological measure to estimate the basin’s surface runoff (Strahler 1952). The HI is expressed as follows:

HI = mean elevation–minimum elevation = maximum elevation–minimum elevation

Figure- 9 Hypsometric Curve of the River Basin

5. DISCUSSION

The current work tries to comprehend the significance of morphometric characteristics in a hydrological setting to solve significant water issues and land degradation. The geographical changes in drainage features across the basin possibly will be quantified and analysed by the combined use of remote sensing, GIS, and statistical techniques. The findings help locate suitable sites for water conservation and recharge structures and investigate potential groundwater zones in the basin. The Aril River basin is a fourth-order basin, with 96.63% of its streams being lower than the second order, which can be linked to the presence of complex and rough topography in the study region. Aril River basin’s bifurcation ratio values range from 4.21 to 17, resulting from homogeneous lithology and least structural control. The lower stream length ratios observed in lower-order streams indicate that they drain across less permeable rocks on steeper slopes. The Aril basin’s drainage texture is coarse, indicating moderate to high transmissibility of rock structure. The drainage density and stream frequency values also indicate the high transmissible nature of the surface and subsurface features, low relief, and very low to low runoff in the basin. The shape of the watershed is slightly elongated, which manifests flat to moderate flow observed for a more extended period on the hydrograph and increased infiltration. The length of overland flow and the channel maintenance constant also identify that the study region has a gentle slope, long flow path, and permeable materials, indicating good infiltration and less runoff. The majority of the area in the watershed possesses a flat to gentle slope region. The relief ratio and relative relief mean a very low degree of terrain variation and flat to moderate slope in the study area. The ruggedness indicates a low flow rate and soil erosion rate in the river basin.

The morphometric analysis of a basin acts as a requirement. This study attempts to describe morphometric and geomorphic parameters of the Aril basin using the remote sensing data and GIS tools The analysis shows that the Aril basin has a fourth-order stream with a dendritic pattern. The study area has a more significant number of smaller-order streams, indicating permeable strata with flat to gentle slopes. The study area is noticed to contain improved infiltration and low runoff due to more permeability. The results indicate that the flow in the study area is characterized by longer duration and less peak, which may increase the possibility of infiltration and groundwater enrichment. It is found that the remote sensing data and GIS tools are very competent in carrying out morphometric. The use of remote sensing data combined with ground survey data (SOI toposheets) provides a comprehensive view of the behaviour of a watershed. This approach allows hydrologists and Geomorphologists to arrive at a holistic understanding of different characteristics of the basin. This study also supports that the GIS-based method is more suitable than traditional approaches for analysing drainage basins and the impact of different parameters on landforms, runoff, and soil erosion. The hypsometric analysis of the Aril River basin specifies the mature stage of geomorphic evolution of the basin. Generally, the results imply that the study region is in the equilibrium stage, has a slightly elongated shape, and has moderate to very low flow rates with less sensitivity toward erosion. The study results are extremely beneficial for developing and planning soil and water conservation structures and watershed management strategies. The study can be further extended for sub-watershed, locating potential groundwater zones, and water harvesting sites.

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information

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