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This study delves into the economic footing of women living in the slums of Bhopal city. It focuses on how much they earn, their overall income, the respect they get from their jobs and their understanding of wealth. A survey of 299 slum women was conducted to assess the impact of NGO interventions on their economic status. Quantitative analysis of the responses provides insights to guide future actions for their well-being. Economic status significantly affects physical and mental health, educational achievement and overall quality of life. Low economic status leads to poverty and poor health, hindering societal progress. Having access to financial services is very important for everyone to benefit from economic growth, especially for people with low incomes. The research highlights the importance of economic status in driving social inequality and informing policies to address poverty and unemployment. Field Survey and revealed the positive effects of NGO interventions, which provide essential support, help slum women achieve financial stability, and contribute to urban development. But the economic status has not improved to the level expected. A lot of more consistent efforts are required. This study provides crucial insights for policymakers and stakeholders to improve the economic status and well-being of women in slums, thereby fostering social and economic equity.

To examine the extent of women’s mobility and ability to make decisions in relation to their economic status as influenced by NGO interventions.

Economist and Nobel laureate Amartya Sen (2001) explains that women have less access to essential freedoms such as education, jobs, healthcare, and democratic rights. First, fewer girls attend school compared to boys, leading to women comprising over two-thirds of the world's illiterate adults (UNESCO, 2013). Second, from birth through their childbearing years, women have less access to healthcare (WHO, 2007). Third, women are underrepresented in local, regional, and national governments (Lopez-Claros, 2005). Illiteracy and poverty make it further difficult for people to learn about government financial help, welfare programs, and protective laws. Hence, because of their social and economic situations, women often lack self-confidence, making it hard for them to interact with staff in banks or post offices. Additionally, the lengthy and complicated paperwork needed to access government benefits is a significant obstacle. Speeding up financial inclusion among identified slum dwellers is vital.  

Empowering women can improve the quality and capacity of human resources available for economic development (Pal, Gupta & Joshi, 2022). Financial inclusion therefore according to Trivedi (2022) is crucial for uplifting poor, slum, and backward women, helping them escape the poverty trap. It involves providing access to formal financial services such as savings accounts, loans, insurance, and pensions from official financial institutions. Building a strong financial system requires ensuring that financial services reach those who lack access and that people are informed about these services. This includes improving financial literacy and extending banking services to those currently excluded. Gender inequality remains a significant socioeconomic issue in India, creating a notable access gap between males and females despite efforts to broaden access to formal financial products (Trivedi, 2022). There has been little effort to enhance the financial and social conditions of women in labour market. Labour can involve self-employment, casual wage employment, or regular wage employment in both urban and rural areas (Sheokand, 2018). Current data collection methods often overlook this work. If women's work is not counted, they will be left out of efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 8, which aims for decent jobs and productive work for all (Mehta & Pratap, 2020).

General financial awareness is not influenced by gender, age group, marital status, or monthly income, but it varies with different educational qualifications among respondents. The use of borrowing sources and investment alternatives is also unaffected by demographic variables (Bansal & Divya, 2021). The G-20 countries emphasize financial inclusion as a critical element in achieving gender parity and other sustainable development goals. Women empowerment involves changing power relations in favour of women and is essential for global progress. The strong relationship between women empowerment and financial inclusion provides valuable insights for policymakers, highlighting the connection between financial inclusion and various dimensions of women empowerment. As such financial inclusion positively influences the social, political, and economic aspects of women empowerment. Women in urban slums may have access to financial institutions but still face economic risks like unsteady earnings and informal, non-contractual jobs, financial risks like dependence on the cash economy and informal credit, and social risks like social fragmentation. These factors contribute to significant gaps in the lives of poor urban women (Bhatia & Singh, 2018).

Self-help groups (SHGs) can greatly improve development outcomes. When SHGs offer health education, life skills training, and share other important information, they make a big difference. These benefits come from group training, sharing ideas, learning together, and supporting each other. SHGs guided by external experts are more likely to provide additional training, demonstrating the success of well-rounded programs (Brody et al., 2015). Community savings groups help meet the needs of the poorest groups and support the growth of citywide and national slum dweller federations, empowering and mobilizing urban poor communities to work together (d’Cruz & Mudimu, 2013).

NGOs play a crucial role in ensuring that social change benefits the poor when they participate in designing and managing the change process. Flexible practices in micro-finance and adaptable SHG models based on best practices are necessary. Many women from underprivileged backgrounds work as domestic workers in urban areas, playing a significant role in supporting their families' income, even though their work is often overlooked (Hiremath, 2022). Providing women with access to capital, business management training, on-the-job and skills training, and job vouchers are interventions aimed at increasing the productivity and earnings of self-employed women, women farmers, and women wage workers in developing countries (Buvinić & Furst-Nichols, 2016).

Investing money in improving slums should be based on solid evidence that the projects work. Policymakers need to know which methods are most effective and address problems specific to city areas when planning thorough evaluations of these improvement projects (Field & Kremer, 2006). Economic empowerment via microfinance and skills training enables women to fulfil their fundamental needs and combat gender inequality in impoverished urban environments. These empowerment efforts should help women gain more control over their lives and be more involved in making personal, economic and institutional decisions. NGOs can increase their effectiveness by expanding their commitment to advocacy and networking with other organizations. NGOs should work on building better connections between politicians, officials, and local leaders through lobbying and advocacy. Enhancing organizational accountability and transparency by encouraging client participation in program development and public advocacy can further empower clients (Krenz, 2012).

Recent increases in foreign direct investment in India have provided households with greater disposable income, impacting women in urban slums. As demand for unskilled laborers rises, women will find more employment opportunities, improving household income (Rambarran, 2014). “Savings practices foster a social response to crises, converting the atomized poor from passivity to agency and from dependence to autonomy. Collective agency within savings groups provides a sense of loyalty and identity for the disconnected and alienated poor, bridging substantial gaps in their lives” (Podlashuc, 2009). To really understand how these households, manage their finances and create affordable and easy-to-use services is key to closing this gap (Bhatia & Singh, 2019). Financial inclusiveness is foundational in addressing critical global issues and achieving sustainable development goals, with SHGs and NGOs playing a pivotal role (Bhatia & Singh, 2018).

Vulnerable households often have common traits like having few workers, low and unstable income, large families, female heads of household, health problems, low education, bad housing and no savings. To improve job security for people living in poverty, it’s important to focus on employment-related programs (Kantor & Nair, 2005). SHGs provide critical support for building more sustainable socioeconomic status, enabling women to address various problems and significantly impact their socioeconomic status and empowerment (Ranjitha & Vidya, 2016).

To study the effect of the efforts, NGOs put in to bring a difference in the economic status of women in slums of urban areas an empirical research was carried out by way of questionnaire in form of quiz. The present research has been conducted in selected slums of Bhopal city where NGO’s have been working for the betterment of the area. The study sample includes 299  women randomly identified from these selected slums. The sampling technique is based on two step process. First, we divided the Bhopal District into two zones namely Bhopal North and Bhopal South. The slum areas were then distributed as North Bhopal that include Ambedkar Nagar, Garib Nagar, Durga Nagar, Barela Gaon ,Rajendra Nagar and South Bhopal included the Jatkhedi, Behind Naveen School, Laharpur , Balveer Nagar, and Bagsewaniya. Second, for each slum area we approached voluntary participating women based on purposive sampling approach (Rai & Thapa, 2015). The distribution of data is shown in Table A.

We developed a simple multiple option quiz comprising eleven questions (Appendix – I) aligned with our research objective and informed by the existing literature. The quiz was prepared in Hindi language as it being native to the slums. These questions were strategically designed so that they can be comfortably asked to slum dwelling women to explore their economic status in terms of mobility in decision making at the economic level. These questions were personally asked by the researcher to the slum women and their responses were noted. The responses were then entered into an MS- Excel sheet. Subsequently, data sourced from these processed worksheets facilitated relevant statistical analyses using MS Excel and SPSS.

Rigorous data processing included visual validation of submission accuracy and consideration of submission timestamps within the designated timeframe to ensure impartiality. Prior consent was secured from participants, emphasizing the voluntary nature of their involvement, and no incentives were offered. About 189 women of total 299 were 31-55 years of age and the rest belonged to 15-30 years of age. About 286 women were married, 3 unmarried, 2 divorced and the rest were widowed. Most of the women were non-graduates and were either house wives or worked as maids in local households. A very few did stitch work at home or run grocery shops, parlours, tea corners etc.

Table-1

N: It is the number of observations or samples. In this case, there are 299 observations.

Mean: It is the average value of the “Economic status” variable across all observations. Here, the mean is 5.06.

Std. Deviation: It is the standard deviation of the “Economic status” variable, which measures the amount of variation or dispersion of the data from the mean. A standard deviation of 2.395 indicates that the values of “Eco” typically vary by about 2.395 units from the mean.

Std. Error Mean: It is the standard error of the mean, which estimates the variability of the sample mean if different samples were taken. A standard error of 0.139 suggests that if multiple samples of 299 observations were taken, the means of those samples would typically vary by about 0.139 units from the mean of 5.06.

In summary, for the “Economic status” variable with 299 observations, the average value is 5.06, which typically varies by 2.395 units from this mean and the variability in the sample mean is estimated to be 0.139.

Table-2

Table-2 presents the results of a one-sample t-test for the variable “Economic status” with a test value of 6. The interpretation of the table is as follows

Test Value = 6: This is the hypothesized population mean that the sample mean is being compared against.

t: The t-statistic is -6.760. This statistic measures the size of the difference relative to the variation in your sample data. A negative value indicates that the sample mean is less than the test value.

df: The degrees of freedom, which is 298. This is calculated as the sample size [(N) minus 1] i.e. (299 - 1).

Sig. (2-tailed): The p-value, which is 0.000. This indicates the probability of observing a t-statistic as extreme as, or more extreme than, the observed value under the null hypothesis (that the sample mean is equal to the test value). A p-value of 0.000 suggests that there is a statistically significant difference between the sample mean and the test value at conventional significance levels (e.g., 0.05, 0.01).

Mean Difference: The difference between the sample mean and the test value, which is - 0.936. This means the sample mean is 0.936 units lower than the test value of 6.

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference:

Lower: The lower bound of the confidence interval is -1.21. Upper: The upper bound of the confidence interval is -0.66.

This interval means that we are 95% confident that the true difference between the sample mean and the test value lies between -1.21 and -0.66.

In summary, the one-sample t-test results indicate that the mean value of “Economic status” (5.06) is significantly different from the hypothesized test value of 6. The negative t-statistic and the mean difference suggest that the mean of “Economic status” is lower than 6, and this difference is statistically significant (p-value = 0.000).

Table-3

One-Sample Effect Sizes
		Standardizera	Point  Estimate	95% Confidence Interval
				Lower	Upper
Eco	Cohen’s d	2.395	-.391	-.508	-.273
	Hedges’ correction	2.401	-.390	-.507	-.272
a. The denominator used in estimating the effect sizes. Cohen’s d uses the sample standard deviation. Hedges’ correction uses the sample standard deviation, plus a correction factor.

The table provides effect sizes for the one-sample t-test on the “Economic status” variable. Here’s how to interpret the effect sizes and their confidence intervals:

Cohen’s d:

Point Estimate: 2.395. Cohen’s d measures the standardized mean difference between the sample mean and the test value (6). A d-value of 2.395 indicates a large effect size, meaning the sample mean is substantially different from the test value in terms of standard deviations.

95% Confidence Interval:

Lower: -0.391

Upper: -0.273 The confidence interval for Cohen’s d indicates that the effect size is reliably large, with the true effect size falling between -0.391 and -0.273. The negative values imply that the sample mean is significantly less than the test value.

Hedges’ g (with correction):

Point Estimate: 2.401. Hedges’ g is similar to Cohen’s d but includes a correction for small sample sizes. The point estimate of 2.401 also indicates a large effect size, similar to Cohen’s d.

95% Confidence Interval:

Lower: -0.390

Upper: -0.272

The confidence interval for Hedges’ g is consistent with Cohen’s d, showing that the true effect size is also large and significantly different from zero.

Denominator Note: Cohen’s d uses the sample standard deviation, while Hedges’ g adjusts for sample size with a correction factor, making it slightly more accurate for small samples.

In summary, both Cohen’s d and Hedges’ g indicate a very large and statistically significant effect size. The sample mean of “Eco” is substantially lower than the test value of 6, with the confidence intervals suggesting that this effect is robust and not due to sampling variability.

This study highlights the economic challenges and potential for women living in the urban slums of Bhopal city. A person’s economic status, which covers earnings, income, and wealth, is important for their overall well-being and fairness in society. For women in slums, economic status significantly impacts their quality of life, affecting their education, health and living conditions.

This research also highlights the potential of slum women as valuable contributors to urban development. However, their potential is often hindered by inadequate basic services and poor economic conditions. Many slum women face low-paying, unstable jobs that are not legally recognized or protected, lacking basic rights and social security. This situation is particularly severe for women and young workers in the informal economy, as noted by the International Labour Organization (ILO).

NGOs have been working to empower these women and improve their economic status. Through field visit survey with slum women in Bhopal, we observed the positive impact of NGO interventions but the improvements were not up to the benchmark set by us, as proved by the quantitative analysis. These organizations provide essential support and opportunities, helping women overcome economic barriers. They offer training, financial assistance and other resources that enable women to secure better jobs, increase their income and improve their overall living conditions.

The study highlights how important these NGO programs are for helping slum women connect with overall economic growth. By addressing issues like low wages, job insecurity and lack of social protection, NGOs help slum women gain financial stability and independence. This support not only improves their economic status but also enhances their confidence and ability to contribute to their communities. Though the work of NGO’s is commendable yet there is much more to be done. A lot of more consistent efforts are required to improve the economic status from the roots.

For policymakers and other stakeholders, this research provides valuable insights into the needs and challenges of slum women. It underscores the necessity of continued and targeted support to uplift these communities. By understanding the impact of NGO interventions, stakeholders can develop more effective strategies to promote sustainable development and social equality.

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