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Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., commonly known as bushmint, is a perennial shrub found in tropical and subtropical regions. Its essential oil, extracted from the leaves, is recognized for antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review offers an in-depth analysis of the oil’s chemical composition and biological activities, highlighting the influence of geographical and extraction factors on its complex mix of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and volatile compounds. While the plant holds significant medicinal potential, its invasive nature requires sustainable utilization strategies. Further research is essential to fully harness its therapeutic benefits.

The present review thus aims to analyze the available data from recent previous studies of the biological activity of H. suaveolens essential oil.

Salvia officinalis (sage) has been traditionally employed for its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects, while Thymus vulgaris (thyme) is valued for its antiseptic and expectorant properties [4,5]. The use of Ocimum species (Tulsi) has been extensively documented in Ayurveda and its biological properties continue to be an active area of research. These plants are rich in essential oils that contain monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other bioactive compounds, which contribute to their therapeutic and aromatic characteristics. Genus Hyptis has about 400 species [6], among which, Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Mesopharum suaveolens) commonly known as bushmint, ‘Vilayati Tulsi’ (Hindi) and bhustrena (Sanskrit) stands out for its potent aromatic properties and medicinal uses. Originnally a native of Central America, it is now found in all tropical and subtropical climate zones around the world. It has high adaptability and has documented locations in almost every state in India. Although it may grow in semi-arid conditions, it does best in warm tropical locations with high rainfall. [7] It is an invasive weed which is significant for its essential oil abundant in monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, responsible for its antimicrobial, antifungal, and insecticidal activities [8]. This plant’s essential oil exhibits significant variability in its chemical composition depending on the geographic location and environmental conditions, leading to diverse chemotypes. Apart from its antioxidant properties, it also has diuretic, antidiabetic, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory [9,10,11,12] that account for its usage as a traditional medicine in various cultures worldwide. Biological properties of its extracts and essential oils such as antibacterial [13], antinociceptive [14], and adulticidal properties have been investigated [15]. Though its nutritional value [16], medicinal properties and traditional uses [17] have been reviewed, comprehensive review on phytochemical, and biological aspects of essential oils of H. suaveolens is lacking.

Plant description

It starts its vegetative phase from either a perennating rootstock or viable seeds from the previous cycle when the monsoon rains begin [18]. The shrub, reaching up to 1.5 meters in height, has a stem that is obtusely four-angled and thinly hairy. The leaves are ovate, acute, and hispid on the underside, while the upper surface is nearly hairless. They have petioles that can grow up to 5 cm long. The flowers are arranged in clusters of 1 to 12, with a calyx tube that is 8 mm long, tubular, and 10-ribbed, featuring glandular hairs and spinulose teeth that are 4 mm long. The corolla is 5 mm long, with short, glabrous lobes that are blue. The nutlets measure 4 x 2.5 mm, are compressed with a ridge on the dorsal surface, pubescent, deep brown, and become mucilaginous when wet [19]. Although 25 to 30 °C is ideal for seed germination, seeds can germinate in a wide range of temperatures, from roughly 10 to 40 °C [20].

This evaluation relies on an examination of research papers that were obtained from offline sources such as books like Wealth of India and digital sources such as SciFinder, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Wiley Online. Search on digital platforms was carried out first by using major keywords ‘Hyptis suaveolens’ and then combining the words ‘Essential Oil’, ‘Chemical constituents’, ‘Chemistry’, ‘Phytochemistry’, ‘Traditional uses’, and ‘Biological Activity’ with major keywords up to year 2024. The earliest research paper was found dating back to 1970.

Traditional uses

Hyptis suaveolens is widely recognized for its traditional medicinal uses across more than 23 countries. Its use has been documented in The Ayurveda, Chinese Traditional Medicine and African traditional medicinal system. Various parts of the plant are utilized in traditional medicine, reflecting its broad therapeutic potential. These applications include both in vivo and in vitro usage of the plant through various methods. In Bangladesh, the seeds of Hyptis suaveolens are used to treat ailments like gastrointestinal disorders [21,22] by soaking them in water and ingesting. Stems are juiced to treat stomach ache in children [23]. While in Brazil, a tea is brewed with aerial parts of the plant to relieve diarrhoea and stomach inflammation [24,25].

Use of aerial parts to make a decoction for treating skin conditions has been recorded in China [26]. The roots are stewed with chicken to make a dish that helps cure infertility upon consumption [27].

In India, a Beedi made of H. suaveolens leaves is used to aid with respiratory problems [28] and its leaves are usedvto treat surface wounds on skin. In Nigeria, the entire plant has been documented for its use in repelling mosquitoes [29,30]. Several scientific studies conducted in Africa have evaluated the efficacy of H. suaveolens as a mosquito repellent, producing promising results. [31,32]. In the Phillipines, skin irritation and joint pain are treated by soaking in bath water prepared with leaves of H. suaveolens [33]. A concoction prepared from its roots is also served as an appetizer [34]. In Senegal, a tea made form seeping its stem, flowers and seeds is used to treat cough and cold [35].

Chemical constituents of H. suaveolens essential oil

Research on the essential oil from this plant began in the early 20th century. The essential oil derived from aerial parts of the plant, is typically pale yellow to light green, has been described as having a "herbaceous" aroma with citrus and slightly minty undertones. The yield of essential varies significantly, ranging from 0.2% to 0.4% [36,37.38].

A total of 130 compounds can be categorized as monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, phenylpropanoids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and hydrocarbons have been identified through phytochemical screening of the essential oil H. suaveolens from all over the world (Table 1). Thirty of the 130 were hydrocarbons classified as monoterpenes, fifteen as oxygenated monoterpenes, thirty as sesquiterpenes, seventeen as oxygenated sesquiterpenes, seven as diterpenes, three as alcohols, one as an aldehyde, one as ketone, eleven hydrocarbons, and two phenylpropanoids.Terpenes are the most abundant and structurally varied naturally occurring plant compounds, according to Zwenger [39]. Monoterpenes are the C10 representatives of the terpenoid family and are formally considered to be constructed of two isoprene units [40]. One DMAPP (Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate) and one IPP (Isopentenyl pyrophosphate) molecule, which are often connected head-to-tail to produce all-trans geranyl diphosphate (GPP), are the building blocks of monoterpenes. GPP may be folded into tricyclic, bicyclic, and monocyclic structures, and then changed to yield more than a thousand different monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are lipophilic volatile compounds that are present in floral odors, essential oils, and protective resins of conifers. They are responsible for the unique flavor and aroma of many plants [41]. Sesquiterpenoids are a class of natural products that are derived from farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and are made up of three isoprene units [42]. A plant's biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) response is mostly mediated by sesquiterpenes. They have a key role in the defense mechanisms of plants against pests and predators [43]. Diterpenes are produced via the synthesis and chemical modification of carbon skeletons from geranylgeranyl diphosphate, a common isoprene precursor. Various diterpenes have been identified from a wide range of species of flora and fauna. In addition to medicines and physiologically active compounds like phytohormones, these diterpenes also include antibiotics [44]. In certain plants, phenylalanine and tyrosine are the precursors in the shikimic acid pathway, which produces phenylpropanoids or cinnamic acids. [45].

Several common main compounds were identified. Prominent monoterpene hydrocarbons have been identified as sabinene (0.7 - 29.42%), β-pinene (2.11 - 11.7%), β-myrcene (5.3%), α-phellandrene (0.7 - 22.78%), p-cymene (0.76 - 6.1%), limonene (0.7 - 8.48%), (Z)-β-ocimene (0.07 - 11.7%), fenchone (2.7 - 17.2%), and α-fenchol (0.59 - 11.8%). 1,8-cineole / eucalyptol (1.72 - 44.4%) was the dominant oxygenated monoterpenoid. The main sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were found to be β-caryophyllene (9.47 - 40.2%), α-humelene (0.5 - 6.7%), germacrene D (0.17 - 5.21%), and bicyclogermacrene (0.7 - 9.7%). The two predominant oxygenated sesquiterpenes were spathulenol (0.4 –11.09%) and caryophyllene oxide (2.08–17.6%). The major diterpene (0.7–4.7%) was abietadiene. α-copaene, β-elemene, γ-elemene, δ-cadinene, α-cadinol, camphor, linalool, bornyl acetate, and α-thujene were observed as the common minor compounds.

Pharmacology

The chemical composition of the oil varies significantly across different geographic regions, influenced by factors such as climate, soil type, and plant genetics. This variation has led to the identification of distinct chemotypes, each with unique pharmacological profiles. The essential oil has demonstrated notable antimicrobial, antifungal, and insecticidal properties, making it a valuable resource in traditional medicine and potential modern therapeutic applications.

A detailed summary of the chemical composition and corresponding pharmacological activities reported in various studies is provided in Table 2, offering a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on this versatile plant. The DPPH test [7,10], FRAP assay [64], and orthophenanthroline assay [72] have all been used to examine the essential oil of H. suaveolens for its antioxidant activity.Significant anti-cancer properties of H. suaveolens essential oil have been assessed using the MTT test on the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 [75]. According to studies, Hyptis suaveolens contains phytochemicals that are effective against a variety of fungus, like Trichophyton rubrum [64], Rhizophus stolonifera, Aspergillus species [61], Candida albicans, and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. gladioli [67]. Due to its potent antibacterial activity against bacterial strains like Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa [59], Shigella dysenteria [69], Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus cereus [71], the essential oil of H. suaveolens can potentially find use as a bio-preservative [64]. Evaluations of H. suaveolens essential oil's insecticidal qualities have been carried out on Anopheles gambiae [68], Tenebroides mauritanicus [69], and Rhipicephalus microplus [76]. Furthermore, it has proven to be highly effective in killing Aedes aegypti [66] and Culex quinquefasciatus [65] larvae. In addition, it has a strong repellent effect on female Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes [71]. These results support the traditional African medicine's usage of this herb as a repellent. In vivo tests have revealed that it also demonstrates acute phytotoxicity against E. crus-galli [74] and cytotoxity against mice [71], D. melanogaster, A. salina [73], and Allium cepa [74].

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